Critical Thinking in Sociology
Study Sheet
Texts, Key Arguments, Points of Interest, Terminologies
1.
Introduction
De-Naturalization:
Core task of social science. Shows that what presents itself as “NATURAL” in fact has clear social,
man-made causes. Natural in the double sense: self-evident, normal, manner-of-fact, and
Biological, genetic, innate.
This is done by: Through History (by uncovering the genealogy of our everyday practices, show
what they looked like in the past) – Contrast of time. Historicization is an important tool of
denaturalisation. By uncovering the (often repressed) history of certain practices and beliefs it
becomes possible to show their socially constructed character.
Through Anthropology (Compare “our” everyday practices with those of other societies on the
globe) – Contrast in Space. They don’t rely on historicization, but use culturalization as a means of
showing the social roots of practices and beliefs.
Single Hermeneutic: The relationship of knowing goes one way. From the scientist to the natural
phenomena that they are investigating. (i.e. scientists with bacteria, goes one way -Scientist to bacteria,
astronomer to planet).
Double Hermeneutic: When social scientists want to make a hypothesis, they investigate, but due
to the subjects also “form their own hypothesis – i.e. stereotypes, prejudices”. People have opinions not
only of themselves and others but also of the scientist.
Differences between the two (the difference between natural and social
sciences): The role that the lay community play in the formation of social sciences. There is no
clear dividing line between informed sociological reflection carried on by lay actors and similar
endeavours on the part of specialists. There are dividing lines, but they are inevitably fuzzy, and
social scientists have no absolute monopoly either upon innovative theories or upon empirical
investigations of what they study.
Common sense: The host of theories and concepts that social actors spontaneously develop to
navigate the social world. Different from natural sciences, wherein people usually don’t have strong
opinions on certain topics.
Kantian critique: Objective reality is chaos – our consciousness creates the objectivity of things.
Consciousness is not passive reception, but actively shapes the world around it. Hence, analysis
must turn “inwards”, aiming to clarify how the actor experiences their world.
Marxian critique: Economic/Material reproduction determines human relations, culture, beliefs,
consciousness. Our social being (Sein) precedes our consciousness (Bewusstsein). Study the
historical developments in the way that humans have organized their economic/material
reproduction to understand human subjectivity. Hence, analysis must turn “outwards” and examine
the material conditions that shape how social actors think, feel and perceive the world.
Subjectivism/Constructivism: Relationships between social analysis and social actors is
asymmetrical. Sociology should not explain Why people do what they do, it describes How they do it.
Sociologists should study how actors actively create a “common sense” world and the “spontaneous
sociologies” they produce in the process. Actors are competent agents, little qualitative difference
between lay and professional social theory. Sociology provides little material for “social critique” or
“emancipation”. Thinkers: Kant, Husserl, Schutz, Garfinkel, etc.
Objectivism/Structuralism: Relationship between social analyst and social actors = asymmetrical.
Sociology should break with “spontaneous” sociology of actors. Social theory is qualitatively better than
lay theory, which is often partial, biased, fake. Sociology should explain why people do what they do,
reveal the reason “behind” their actions and thoughts. Everything is explained by factors that are to a
sense “pre-determined”. But some of the answers found may not be so easily accepted or digested.
Sociology has a strong emancipatory function and should be a tool of social critique. Thinkers: Marx,
Engels, Sombart, Adorno, etc.
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, Sociology is a part of what it studies, the researchers are shaped by society, and
society itself is filled with concepts and theories formulated by lay actors to help them
interpret the world.
2.
Durkheim & Marx:
Durkheim Key Ideas & Concepts from Rules of Sociological Method:
Prenotions: Partial, schematic, incorrect representations of the social world embedded in
everyday words and expressions. Developed for practical actions and judgement, not scientific
understanding.
Religions, nations, states, classes, societies, etc. only directly reveal themselves by their
constitutive elements (artefacts, symbols, institutions, buildings, etc.)
Prenotions are not just stereotypes. They force us to look at the social world through a
certain light (in a category). i.e. When the idea of the refugee crisis is brought forward, it is
only looking and portraying a certain part of society, while ignoring the rest. Prenotions tell
us to define society in a certain way, by setting up certain boundaries.
Social facts: Consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual,
which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him.
A thing many people do very similarly because the socialized community that they belong
to has influenced them to do these things. (marriage, currency, language, religion, political
organization, anything with other people)
Negative rule: Do not use concepts formed outside science and for needs entirely
unscientific. (Mistrust definitions not made by yourself & Beware of pre-define objects that
“common sense” provides you with.
Positive rule: Select data used in research wisely. Consider social facts as things.
Define phenomena independent of the subjective perceptions and opinions that both
social actors and analysts have of them.
Determining social facts – Durkheim looked at the evolution of the quantity and
quality of legal rules – the most objective reality of the law is punishment, which is what all
types of criminal behaviour produce.
Suicide: Possibility to study suicide without referring to individuals’ psychological or
subjective state (not personal wellbeing societal wellbeing). Definition: “All cases of
death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself,
which he knows will produce this result”.
Compare suicide rates of groups defined on the basis of external, objective
characteristics like gender, religion, marital status, etc. Suicide rates are determined
by variations in social organization or social structure.
Fatalistic: Too much social regulation (slaves, prisoners)
Egoistic: Too little social integration (singles, hermits, unemployed)
Altruistic: Too much social integration (suicide terrorists, soldiers, cult
members)
Anomic: Too little social regulation (New rich, bankrupt CEO’s)
Durkheim is anti-common sense, anti-subjectivity (due to psychology – success
of sociology depends on demarcation from psychology)
Marx Key Ideas & Concepts from German Ideology
Hegel: Zeitgeist: world spirit, dialectical progression of time to reach a certain conclusion
(immanent teleology). Each new period in history is marked by a higher degree of Reason and
Freedom than the one that preceded it.
Feuerbach: Spirit and god are created by man, not vice versa, man alienates himself from his
true “species essence” by aggrandizing god (man = sensuous, desiring, lustful creature full of
appetites). Feuerbach proposes a materialist philosophy.
Marx & Engels: Feuerbach’s materialism is too philosophical; it is still an ideological
relationship. The real world is made of social (economic) relations. Marx sees that Feuerbach
doesn’t see the progression of history occurring due to the economical relations at the centre. Even
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, “sensuous” products, such as Cherry Tree be seen as an object of commerce, and material
progress.
Distinction of Humans and Animals: Men have consciousness (religion, etc.), are able to
produce their means of subsistence (conditioned by physical organization), through this
they indirectly produce their actual material life. Animals develop highly specialized skills
BUT are dependent on particular types of environments. Humans are the opposite.
Human relationship to the world is one of doing, not thinking (praxis). Contra the young
Hegelians, our real-world conditions determine our ideas about the world.
Mode of Production: Everything that goes into the production of
the necessities of life. Both the productive forces* and the social and Productive Forces: Human labour power
technical relations of production* and the means of production (tools,
The means of production determine the relations of productive machinery, buildings, knowledge,
production, which then determine the ideology. Basic etc.)
description of Marxist historical materialism.
Social and Technical relations of
Primitive Communism: Here technology is shared out equally
between all members of society. There is no hierarchy, and social production: The property, power and control
relations are egalitarian in nature. relations governing society’s productive assets
(law), cooperative work relations and forms and
Industrial Capitalism: Whereas here, the means of production association, relations between people)
are concentrated in the hands of the capitalists, and the opposition
between capital and labour brings forth the develop of different and
opposing world-views or ideologies.
Common sense = An Ideology The cultural, idealized expression of the economic
situation of a given social class. In Marxist jargon: The “world-view” from a particular position in the
relations of production. And per definition it is biased, partial, and normative.
Durkheim VS Marx:
Both agree that everyday beliefs and opinions are a partial/biased view of the “real world”. BUT, for
Marx, common sense is rooted in the economic condition of the individual. And for him there is also
a hierarchical nature to everyday beliefs, which is related to class structure. (Ruling class has the
ruling ideas). They both view common sense as a problem, because it conceals or blocks “true”
knowledge of society (obstacle to be overcome).
Means of Mental Production: The tools and equipment used to spread ideas, such as printing
presses, clergy, newspapers, intellectuals, etc. Dominant ideas are more elaborate, coherent, and
spread across the population more.
So, CLASS struggle is a struggle for ideas, as every class strives to impose its own particular
worldview or ideology as universal (Feudalism – honour, loyalty | Bourgeoisie – Liberalism). They
both appear to be something that they are really not.
Engelsian Feminism: Marriage is prostitution. Economic developments affect all social relations
(including gender relations).
Advent of private property leads to the need to retain ownership over said property (need
for heirs -> Father’s right) this leads to monogamous marriage/family for women, not men.
In this relation women are barred from economic production and relegated to domestic
tasks.
Monogamy leads to its antithesis, adultery and prostitution. The woman “sells” her body to
the male, in return she is provided with economic safety. The abolition of private property
would lead to the abolition of monogamy, meaning women would get equal rights to the
means of production, and free sexual relations would develop.
False consciousness: Dominated groups internalize the worldview of the dominant in a way
which makes them think and act against their own interest (Marx/Engels never used the
term explicitly). On the other hand, they realize that men understand their position in society, but
are not able to act differently. At most they are ambiguous on the matter, not providing a clear
answer. | Reductive view of everyday actors’ competences. “Ideology is a process accomplished by
the thinker consciously, but with a false consciousness (the real motives remain unknown).
Important on Marx: Ideas don’t have intrinsic (belonging naturally, essential) power. Certain
beliefs become widespread because they are furthered by the dominant class. The reason ideas
appeal to people is because they mesh with their class interests. Spontaneous Revolution: When
capitalism becomes so bad, the masses will rise up and tear it down.
Base (economic) conditions the Superstructure (non-economic)
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