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Summary All problems 2.7
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A detailed yet concise summary of all the problems and all literature of block 2.7 developmental psychology. The most important parts are highlighted to make studying easier.
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1Problem 1
Summary
Problem 1
Article 1: power of bullies and plight of victims
Definition and Prevalence of Bullying
Bullying captures a dynamic interaction between the perpetrator and the victim.
- The power imbalance between the two parties distinguishes bullying from
conflict.
Definitions frequently say ‘repetition’ is needed
- not clear that repetition is a required component
- a single incident can raise the expectation and fear of continued abuse
Stability of Bullying and Victimization
Psychologists have assumed temporal stability in bullying and victimization
- more is known about perpetration of bullying than about victimization.
- less than 10% of youth = chronic bullies throughout childhood
early to middle adolescence = decline in experiences of victimization.
Direct and Indirect Forms of Bullying
Direct confrontation (e.g., physical aggression, threats, name-calling)
- Involve intimidating, humiliating, or belittling someone in front of an audience
Indirect tactics (e.g., spreading of rumors, backstabbing, and exclusion from the group)
- Involves relational manipulation
Age difference in type of bullying = not found = only physical bullying declines with age
Gender differences = no differences genders in the use of relational aggression. By
middle adolescence, relational aggression probably becomes the norm for both genders
as it becomes less socially acceptable for individuals to physically aggress against their
peers
Bullying and Social Dominance
Bullying is defined as a form of instrumental behavior/ proactive
- high social status, aggressive children are considered to be popular
- bullies score high = to be visible, influential, and admired
Bullying should peak during times of social reorganization and uncertainty
- status enhancement = important during early adolescence = coincides with a
transition from elementary school to middle school
A dominance hierarchy allows youths to navigate the social scene more safely as they
learn how to align themselves and establish their position in the hierarchy
Inflated Self-Views and Social-Cognitive Biases of Bullies
many aggressive youths have high and inflated perceptions = positive self-views
identified bullies rate themselves lower on depression, social anxiety, and loneliness
,2
Problem 1
Explanations:
o information-processing biases = hostile attribution bias: perceive ambiguous
situations as hostile peer intent
o social feedback = more positive than negative
PLIGHT OF VICTIMS
victims = depressed mood and anxiety, psychosomatic problems and academic
difficulties = unclear if these cause bullying or are consequences
Victim Subtypes
Submissive victims: those who are anxious, insecure, and sensitive
Provocative victims resort to aggression but fail = their response is rewarding. tend to
have emotion regulation and attention problems (attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorders)
Individual and Social Risk Factors
characteristics that increase risk of being bullied:
o obesity, off-time pubertal maturation, LGBT, disabilities
o social misfit individuals whose social behavior deviates from group norms
o The marginal social status = increases risk of prolonged victimization because
these youths are unlikely to be supported or defended by any group members.
o Interpersonal risk factors = emotional or behavioral problems may elicit bullying
especially when the targets are lower in social status (vb adolescents suffering
depression = bullied bc they have difficulties in establishing friendships)
o Receiving emotional support helps protect against being bullied and affects the
degree to which victimized youth feel distressed
Cyclical Processes and Consequences of Peer Victimization
Question of directionality - evidence: the relationships between peer victimization and
internalizing problems are reciprocal, probably reflecting cyclical processes over time
Victims and bully-victims = elevated rates of psychiatric disorders in young adulthood
Victims = higher prevalence of various anxiety-related disorders
Bully-victims = risk of adult depression in addition to specific phobias and panic
disorders.
The School Context
school characteristics = school size, urbanicity, teacher quality, disciplinary practices,
and percentage of ethnic minority students
School Climate = most supported characteristic related to bullying
Racial/ethnic diversity
more ethnic diversity = related to a lower sense of vulnerability among Latino and
African American students, including less self-reported victimization >> buffering effect
,3
Problem 1
Power relations = more balanced in ethnically diverse schools
Organization of instruction
General argument: students who are exposed to a less demanding curriculum and to
more deviant peers are at greater risk of antisocial behavior.
Academic teaming = practice of grouping students into smaller learning communities for
instruction - teaming increased the experience of victimization for students who were
not well liked by their peers
Socially vulnerable adolescents = become increasingly stigmatized.
Deviation from classroom norms.
a positive classroom norm (prosocial conduct, high social order) resulted in worse
outcomes for victims who deviated from those norms.
Being part of the majority ethnic group makes you more likely to endorse self-blaming
attributions >> “It must be me”
INTERVENTIONS TO PREVENT AND REDUCE BULLYING IN SCHOOL
Schoolwide interventions
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP)
o increased awareness of the nature of the problem, heightened monitoring, and
systematic and consistent responses to incidents of bullying
o teachers and school staff receive training –
o knowledge about school rules for bullying, what behavior = bullying and
consequences
Leads to decreases in self- reported bullying and victimization, decreases in teachers’
and students’ reports of other students’ bullying, and increases in students’ perceptions
of a positive school climate
Some research= only moderate effects: could be due to inconsistent implementation
and increased consciousness might result in elevated reports of bullying which, could
mask treatment effect
KiVa, kiusaamista vastaan, translated from Finnish as “against bullying”
o differs from Olweus in its focus on bystanders
- develop more empathy for victims and strategies to help victims
WITS, Walk Away, Ignore, Talk It Out, and Seek Help, developed in Canada
- focuses on increasing knowledge at an early age
Steps to Respect, USA
- attention to relational aggression (e.g., gossip, ostracism) and the use of
playground observation methods to assess changes in bullying behavior
Targeted Interventions
Focuses on 10–15% of youths who are involved in bullying as bullies or victims
Designed to address dysfunctional thoughts and behaviors of children who aggress
against others
, 4
Problem 1
Five-Step Social-Cognitive Model, Crick & Dodge = The information processing
difficulties of bullies begin when they inaccurately interpret social cues (e.g., someone is
pushed while waiting in line and it is unclear why) and continue as they formulate goals,
access from memory a repertoire of possible behavioral responses (e.g., “Should I
retaliate or just ignore it?”), and finally choose a response
Fast Track
o intervention group year long included training in social information processing,
social problem solving, emotional understanding, communication, and self-
control + individualized academic tutoring + parent-training component = good
evidence
Other programmes: Coping Power Program, brainpower
Article 2: a systematic review of school-based interventions (Vreeman)
26 studies reviewed
The types of interventions could be categorized as
o Curriculum:
videotapes, lectures, and written curriculum
focus on changing students’ attitudes, altering group norms, and
increasing self-efficacy
usually require a less resources, personnel, and effort.
Only class room level = seldom effective
o Multidisciplinary:
schoolwide rules and sanctions, teacher training, classroom curriculum,
conflict resolution training, and individual counseling.
The success of this intervention suggests that bullying springs from
factors external to individual children’s psychosocial problems, including
a complex process of social interactions.
Limitations: The implementation of the intervention can vary
significantly, and this clearly alters the results e.g. = decreased school
staff participation at the Rogaland schools affected results
Works less well for younger kids = they only conform to social norms as
they grow older = developmental theory
o Social skills groups:
2 studies targeted children with high levels of aggression, while other 2
targeted children victims
Older children had worse outcomes
Only works on one level = not effective enough
o Mentoring
o Social worker support
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