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Summary 2.7C From Infancy to Old Age
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2.7C From Infancy to Old Age As taught in the year 2018. Includes the whole course - 7 problems.
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2.7C: From Infancy to Old Age (2018); Bachelor in Clinical Psychology; Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural SciencesProblem 1: The burden of being bullied
Bullying in Schools: The Power of Bullies and the Plight of Victims (Juvonen & Graham, 2013)
Definition and Prevalence of Bullying
- Targeted intimidation/humiliation
- Power imbalance: a socially more prominent person abuses their power to threaten/demean/belittle another
- Happens repeatedly or raises the expectation and fear of continued abuse
- 9-25% of school children are bullied
Stability of Bullying and Victimization
- Chronically aggressive youths seem to be bullies throughout childhood
- A decline in experiences of victimization the students age (tendency to age out from bullying)
- Instability of bullying perpetration/victimization
Forms and functions of bullying behaviors
- Direct and indirect forms of bullying
➔ Direct confrontation: intimidating, humiliating, or belittling someone in front of an audience
➔ Indirect tactics: spreading rumors, backstabbing and exclusion from the group to damage the target’s social
reputation, peer group used as a vehicle for attack (relational manipulation)
➔ Gender differences: Although girls use more relational tactics and boys resort more to physical aggressive behaviors,
there are no strong differences between the two genders in the use of relational aggression. By middle adolescence
relational aggression becomes the norm for both genders (= physical aggression decreases with age).
- Bullying and social dominance
➔ Bullying perpetration can be considered a strategic behavior to gain and maintain a dominant position within their
group
➔ Bullies usually have high social status
➔ Status enhancement is particularly important during social reorganization situations (e.g. early adolescence when
the transition from elementary school to middle school occurs) -> bullying behaviors increase during these phases
- Inflated self-views and social-cognitive biases of bullies
➔ Bullies display inflated positive perceptions of themselves: overestimate their competencies in terms of peer status,
academic and athletic domains and rate themselves lower on depression, social anxiety and loneliness
➔ Hostile attribution bias: to perceive ambiguous situations as reflecting hostile peer intent -> bullies maintain their
positive self-views by blaming and aggressing against others instead of accepting personal responsibility
➔ Social feedback bullies receive from peers is more positive than negative - youths rarely challenge bullies by
intervening when witnessing bullying incidents, some bystanders even reinforce by smiling and laughing
Plight of victims
- Victim subtypes
➔ Most typical victims are submissive victims: anxious, insecure and sensitive
➔ Chronic targets (bully-victims/aggressive victims): provocative victims who resort to aggression
- Individual and social risk factors
➔ Any condition or characteristic that makes youths stand out from their peers increases the likelihood of them being
bullied (obesity, off-time pubertal maturation, disabilities, LGBT)
➔ Social misfit: individuals whose social behavior deviates from group norms
- Cyclical processes and consequences of peer victimization
➔ The relationship between peer victimization and internalizing problems are reciprocal
➔ Victims likely to manifest psychosocial difficulties later in life; elevated rates of psychiatric disorders in young
adulthood, higher prevalence of anxiety disorders, elevated risk of adult depression, specific phobias and panic
disorders, highest risk of suicide-related behaviors
➔ Reactions to bullying:
1. Internalizing: anxiety/depression
2. Externalizing: aggression
- Mediating mechanisms underlying psychosocial problems - attributions
➔ Characterological self-blame: internal and uncontrollable (e.g. I would not be picked on if I were a cooler kid) -
related to internalizing problems, social anxiety, depression
➔ Other-blame: hostile attributions of negative peer intent - increases externalizing problems over time
- Consequences
➔ Bullied youths do not do well in school (absence, low grades)
➔ Somatic complaints: headaches and other physical ailments that prevent them from going to school
➔ Increased activity in the affective brain parts (dACC & subACC)
Bullying in context: cyberspace and schools
- Cyberbulling: electronically mediated bullying (e.g. texting via cell phone, emailing, posting messages on social networking sites
and in chat rooms)
➔ Can be either direct (i.e., threats or nasty messages are sent to the target) or indirect (i.e., malicious comments,
pictures, and private messages are spread much like rumors)
➔ Two unique features: speed & spread - degrading messages can quickly reach not only the target, but also a vast
number of other individuals
➔ Anonymity: the identity of the perpetrator can be easily concealed
➔ Bullying not limited to only the school setting (continuous)
,2.7C: From Infancy to Old Age (2018); Bachelor in Clinical Psychology; Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Problem 1: The burden of being bullied
- The school context
➔ Racial/ethnic diversity: more balanced power relations -> reduces incidents of bullying
Interventions to prevent and reduce bullying
- Schoolwide interventions
➔ Address the needs for everyone: all students, their parents, and adults within the school, including administrators,
teachers, and staff
➔ Operate under the assumption that bullying is a systematic social problem - finding a solution is the collective
responsibility of everyone in the school
➔ Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP)
○ This approach requires increased awareness of the nature of the problem (knowledge of rules about
bullying), heightened monitoring, and systematic and consistent responses to incidents of bullying
○ Mixed findings
➔ Finnish KiVa
○ Aims to develop among bystanders more empathy for victims and strategies to help victims when they
are being harassed
○ Showed reductions in bullying
➔ WITS (Walk Away, Ignore, Talk It Out, and Seek Help) from Canada
○ Focusing on the early grades, WITS raises awareness of the problem of school bullying and then teaches
first- to third-grade students a set of social skills to help them resolve interpersonal conflicts
➔ Steps to respect (USA)
○ Attention to relational aggression
- Targeted interventions
➔ Focuses on youths who are involved in bullying incidents as bullies or victims
➔ Designed to address the dysfunctional thoughts (hostile attributional bias) and behaviors of the children who
aggress against others. By training the children to develop an accurate interpretation of the situation they are more
likely to show positive behaviors.
➔ E.g. Five-step social-cognitive model (Crick & Dodge) & Fast-Track
- Comparison schoolwide bullying prevention approach and the targeted intervention approach
➔ Schoolwide: aim to build resiliency in all children and to create a more supportive school climate
○ Criticism: challenging to determine if the school climate has changed for the better
➔ Targeted: focus on the small number of youths at risk of negative outcomes
○ Criticism: need to take into account what we know about the instability of bully and victim status over
time - possibility of false positives
Conclusions and future directions
- Implications for future research
a. Longitudinal research on victimization: why the experiences of victimization fluctuate over time, whether victim
trajectories may decline developmentally (much like physically aggressive youths seem to “age out”), and what the
undisputed long-term consequences of peer abuse are
b. Victimization as social stigma: understanding commonalities and differences across particular identities (e.g.
ethnicities, LGBT)
c. School context matters: characteristics of schools that promote or protect against bullying by one’s peers (e.g.
ethnic composition of classrooms)
d. Designing interventions that work: many of the current programs do not work -> interventions be designed with
random assignments to treatment and control conditions, manualized treatments, careful attention to fidelity and
dosage, multiple outcome measures, and longitudinal follow-up...
A Systematic Review of School-Based Interventions to Prevent Bullying (Vreeman & Carroll, 2007)
Method
- Inclusion criteria:
1. Experimental intervention with control and follow-up
2. School-based intervention designed to reduce/prevent bullying
- 26 studies included
Curriculum interventions (10 studies)
- Implementation of new curriculum (videotapes, lectures and written curriculum) to promote antibullying attitude within the
classroom and to help children develop prosocial conflict resolution skills
- Did not consistently decrease bullying, some studies even found an increase in bullying
Whole-school multidisciplinary interventions (10 studies)
- Whole-school approach that included some combination of schoolwide rules and sanctions, teacher training, classroom
curriculum, conflict resolution training, and individual counseling
- Address bullying as a systemic problem
- Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: original study found a significantly positive effect but replications have failed
- More often reduced victimization and bullying than the interventions that only included classroom-level curricula or social skills
groups
Social and behavioral skills group training interventions (4 studies)
, 2.7C: From Infancy to Old Age (2018); Bachelor in Clinical Psychology; Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Problem 1: The burden of being bullied
- Targeted interventions involving social and behavioral skills groups for children involved in bullying (children with high levels of
aggression & victims)
- Most positive outcomes for the youngest students - may be effective when targeted to this particular developmental window?
- No clear improvement in bullying or victimization
Conclusion: Some of the antibullying interventions actually decrease bullying, while others have no effect or even seem to increase the
amount of bullying. Bullying seems to be a systematic social problem and not caused by an individual.
Effectiveness of anti-bullying school programs: A meta-analysis (Jimenez-Barbero et al. 2015)
Method
- Inclusion criteria:
1. Evaluation of the effectiveness of an intervention program in the school setting
2. Study population
3. Experimental design
4. Necessary statistical information from the control and intervention group at least at posttest
5. Published between 2000-2015
- 14 studies included
Following outcome measures were evaluated:
1. Bullying or school violence frequency (including direct, physical or verbal, and indirect aggression) -> discrete reductions in the
frequency of bullying and school violence immediately after intervention
2. Frequency of victimization -> reduced effects on the frequency of victimization by bullying
3. Attitudes favoring school violence and bullying -> moderate beneficial effects
4. Attitudes against bullying or school violence -> weak and insignificant effect
5. School climate -> no sig. differences
Discussion
- Complex settings (heterogeneity among studies) -> difficult to generalize the results
- Possibility of publication bias (insignificant/negative effects eliminated): for the outcome measures of frequency of
victimization and school climate
- Not a lot of studies (inclusion criteria were pretty strict)
Conclusion
- There is modest evidence of the effectiveness of interventions aimed at preventing school violence and bullying, reducing the
frequency of victimization and bullying, and improving attitudes toward school violence
The support group approach in the Dutch KiVa anti-bullying programme: effects on victimisation, defending and well-being at school (van
der Ploeg, Steglich & Veenstra, 2016)
The Dutch KiVa programme: the support group approach
- In each KiVa school, members of the KiVa team (a few teachers/members of the staff) are trained in addressing pervasive cases
of bullying
- It is assumed that the ‘group pressure’ of shared responsibility will trigger the bullies’ willingness to alter their behaviour
- No one is punished
- Discussion meetings
➔ A support group of 6–8 children is formed, including the bullies and their assistants, defenders or friends of the
victim and a few prosocial, high-status peers (the victim is not included) - balanced group
➔ KiVa team members share their concern about the victimised to the support group in order to raise empathy for the
victim and all children in the support group are encouraged to elicit suggestions that could be helpful for the victim
(‘I have heard person X is having a hard time. What could you do to improve the situation?)
➔ The responsibility to provide practical support (e.g. helping with school tasks; trying to stop the bullying) and to
make the victim more comfortable at school (e.g. greeting; playing together) is given to each member of the
support group
Results on the effectiveness of the KiVa program
- Victim’s evaluation: victims were significantly more positive about the change in their bullying situation immediately after the
support group was organised than at the longer term
- Change in victimization: no support
- Defending: victims with a support group had more defenders at the end of the school year
- Well-being at school: small, even negative effects
Limitations and directions for future studies
- Limitations
➔ Small sample - all of the schools were not able to implement the intervention (38 from 99 schools)
➔ No control condition
➔ High number of victims might go unrecognised
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