Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects (500192B6)
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Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects - Summary
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Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects (500192B6)
Établissement
Tilburg University (UVT)
Book
Understanding Emotions
This is a summary for the course "Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects", which is part of the Clinical Psychology Major at TiU. The summary covers all relevant chapters of the book "Understanding Emotions" by Keltner, Oatley, and Jenkins. Additionally, further information from the lectures was...
Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects (500192B6)
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Emotions: Scientific and Clinical Aspects
,Contents
1. The Riddle of Human Emotional Crying .................................................................................................................. 5
1.1. Developmental aspects of human emotional crying ........................................................................................ 5
1.2. Evolutionary background of crying................................................................................................................... 5
1.3. What makes adults cry?.................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4. Individual differences in crying ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.5. Functions of tearful crying................................................................................................................................ 7
2. Approaches to Understanding Emotions ................................................................................................................. 9
2.1. What is an emotion? – First ideas .................................................................................................................... 9
2.2. Nineteenth-century founders............................................................................................................................ 9
2.3. Philosophical and literary approaches ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4. Brain science, psychology, sociology ............................................................................................................ 11
2.5. What is an emotion? – Conceptions .............................................................................................................. 12
2.6. The emotional realm: Emotions, moods, dispositions ................................................................................... 13
3. Mindfulness, Emotion Regulation, and Well-Being ............................................................................................... 14
3.1. Mindfulness .................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2. Mindfulness and well-being ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.3. Emotion regulation and well-being ................................................................................................................ 17
3.4. Mindfulness and emotion regulation ............................................................................................................. 17
3.5. Does emotion regulation mediate the relationship between mindfulness and well-being?........................... 22
3.6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 22
4. Appraisal, Knowledge, and Experience .................................................................................................................. 23
4.1. Emotions and psychopathology ..................................................................................................................... 23
4.2. Individual differences in emotions ................................................................................................................. 23
4.3. Appraisal and emotion.................................................................................................................................... 25
4.4. Primary appraisals, good and bad.................................................................................................................. 26
4.5. Secondary appraisals ..................................................................................................................................... 27
4.6. Extending appraisal research ......................................................................................................................... 31
4.7. A third phase in appraisal: Verbal sharing ..................................................................................................... 32
4.8. The importance of appraisal for emotional intelligence and therapy ............................................................ 35
4.9. Emotional experience ..................................................................................................................................... 36
4.10. Music-induced emotions ............................................................................................................................ 37
5. Individual Differences in Emotionality .................................................................................................................... 38
5.1. Biases of emotion in temperament and personality ....................................................................................... 38
5.2. Attachment and emotionality .......................................................................................................................... 38
5.3. Emotions associated with attachment styles .................................................................................................. 39
5.4. Beyond parenting: Influences of siblings and peers ...................................................................................... 42
, 5.5. Emotionality over the lifespan ........................................................................................................................ 43
6. Evolution of Emotions ............................................................................................................................................ 45
6.1. Elements of an evolutionary approach ........................................................................................................... 45
6.2. Three social motivations and on antisocial motivation .................................................................................. 46
6.3. Why human emotions are as they are............................................................................................................ 48
6.4. Emotions as bases of human relationships .................................................................................................... 51
6.5. Depression ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
7. Communication of Emotions.................................................................................................................................. 53
7.1. Five kinds of nonverbal behavior ................................................................................................................... 53
7.2. Emotions as social information ...................................................................................................................... 53
7.3. Facial expressions of emotion........................................................................................................................ 54
7.4. Vocal communication of emotions ................................................................................................................. 57
7.5. Communication of emotions by touch ........................................................................................................... 58
7.6. Emotional expression and the coordination of social interaction .................................................................. 58
7.7. Cultural variation in emotional expression ..................................................................................................... 58
7.8. Communication of emotion in art................................................................................................................... 59
8. Emotions in Social Relationships........................................................................................................................... 60
8.1. The interaction between emotions and social relationships .......................................................................... 60
8.2. Emotions within intimate relationships........................................................................................................... 60
8.3. Emotions in friendships.................................................................................................................................. 62
8.4. Emotions in hierarchical relationships ........................................................................................................... 63
8.5. Emotions within and between groups ............................................................................................................ 64
8.6. Emotional intelligence .................................................................................................................................... 65
9. Bodily Changes, Brain Mechanisms and Emotions ............................................................................................... 65
9.1. Parasympathetic response and positive emotion ........................................................................................... 65
9.2. The interplay between bodily reaction and emotional experience ................................................................. 66
9.3. Embodiment, cognition, and social interaction .............................................................................................. 66
9.4. Historical approaches to the neuroscience of emotion .................................................................................. 67
9.5. Emotion and subcortical processes in the brain ............................................................................................ 69
9.6. Emotion and cortical processes in the brain .................................................................................................. 72
9.7. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 73
10. Cultural Understandings of Emotions .................................................................................................................. 74
10.1. The construction of emotions in the west .................................................................................................... 74
10.2. A cultural approach to emotion .................................................................................................................... 74
10.3. Approaches to studying cultural influences on emotion .............................................................................. 77
10.4. Integrating evolutionary and cultural approaches to emotion ...................................................................... 78
10.5. Lecture 8 ...................................................................................................................................................... 79
,11. Emotion-Focused Therapy ................................................................................................................................... 86
11.1. Emotion-focused therapy ............................................................................................................................. 86
11.2. Three problems with emotional processing ................................................................................................. 87
11.3. Universal human emotions in their adaptive forms .................................................................................... 90
11.4. Therapeutic tasks in EFT .............................................................................................................................. 90
12. Emotions and Cognition ...................................................................................................................................... 92
12.1. Passion and reason ...................................................................................................................................... 92
12.2. Emotions prioritize thoughts, goals, and actions ......................................................................................... 93
12.3. Three perspectives on emotions in cognitive functioning ........................................................................... 93
12.4. Effects of moods and emotions on cognitive functioning ............................................................................ 95
12.5. Emotions and the law ................................................................................................................................... 97
13. Mental Disorder and Well-Being in Adulthood .................................................................................................... 98
13.1. Psychiatric Disorders: Symptoms and Prevalence....................................................................................... 98
13.2. How disorders are caused............................................................................................................................ 99
13.3. Vulnerability factors .................................................................................................................................... 101
13.4. Recurrence, recovery, and prolongation of disorders................................................................................ 102
13.5. Well-being .................................................................................................................................................. 104
14. Consciousness, Regulation, Psychotherapy ...................................................................................................... 105
14.1. Consciousness ........................................................................................................................................... 105
14.2. Regulation................................................................................................................................................... 107
14.3. Emotional intelligence ................................................................................................................................ 111
14.4. Psychological therapies .............................................................................................................................. 112
15. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder ......................................................................................................................... 115
15.1. Criteria PTSD (DSM-IV) ............................................................................................................................. 115
15.2. Trauma........................................................................................................................................................ 115
15.3. Stress response syndromes ....................................................................................................................... 116
15.4. Trauma- and stressor-related disorders (DSM-5) ..................................................................................... 117
15.5. PTSD, anger and aggression: Epidemiology, etiology and clinical practice .............................................. 117
16. Mentalization-Based Treatment.......................................................................................................................... 125
16.1. Mentalizing ................................................................................................................................................. 125
16.2. Mentalizing as a multidimensional construct ............................................................................................. 127
16.3. Development of mentalization .................................................................................................................... 127
16.4. Psychic equivalence mode ......................................................................................................................... 130
16.5. Pretend mode ............................................................................................................................................. 130
16.6. Teleological mode ...................................................................................................................................... 130
16.7. Bio-behavioral “switch” model ................................................................................................................... 131
16.8. Overview of interventions ........................................................................................................................... 131
, 1.The Riddle of Human Emotional Crying
(Vingerhoets & Bylsma, 2016)
− Darwin: emotions and vocal crying are important
▪ Basal tears are important as well (e.g. protection of eyes)
▪ Emotional tears: no function
− Meibomian glands: basal tears
− Lacrimal gland: reflexive secretion of irritative tears (e.g. dust in eye) and emotional tears
▪ If irritation of eye is detected, a signal is sent to CNS
→ Causes crying
− Emotional crying = the shedding of tears from the lacrimal apparatus, in the absence of any irritation of the eyes
▪ Often accompanied by alteration in some facial muscles, vocalizations, and sobbing
▪ Only humans cry with tears in response to emotional events
▪ Brain activity in limbic system
→ Not the case for irritative tears
− Behavior that obeys the laws of operant conditioning and is under the influence of biological, psychological, and
social factors
▪ ≠ reflex-like symptom
1.1.Developmental aspects of human emotional crying
− Changes in emotional crying over lifespan
▪ Decrease in frequency with increasing age
▪ Decrease of crying because of physical pain
▪ Increase in crying because of sympathy/ empathy and morality/ sentimentality
▪ Increase in significance of tears relative to vocal aspects
▪ Change in antecedents of the crying episodes
→ Connected to normal developmental processes
→ E.g. fear of strangers, development of theory of mind, empathy, etc.
▪ Development of gender differences
▪ Older adults increasingly cry because of positive situations
− Bowlby: acoustical crying = attachment behavior
▪ Serves to maintain the proximity of the parent and to solicit care and assistance
1.2.Evolutionary background of crying
− Crying plays role in soliciting care and attention
▪ Vocal crying in animals
▪ Distress vocalizations in animals
− Human crying consists of two components
▪ The acoustical component
→ Emitted in all directions (the acoustical umbilical cord)
, → Attracts attention of caregivers, neutral others, and potential predators/ aggressors
▪ The visual component (= tears)
→ Important for close interactions
→ Effects depend on relationship with the other
• Attachment figure: caregiving, providing comfort and succor
• Neutral person (stranger): social bonding
• Aggressor: reduction of aggressive impulses, dis-armament, appeasement
1.3.What makes adults cry?
− Hypothetical situations: loss, romantic break-ups, sad movies,
physical pain, reunions, weddings, music, etc.
− In reality: conflict, minor personal failures, criticism, rejection, etc.
▪ Most of the strongest elicitors of tears are quite rare
▪ We cry most often for quite mundane and common
situations that tend to be rather idiosyncratic
→ Depend partially on previous experiences
→ Don’t seem to have a strong, universal tear-
eliciting capacity
− For someone to start crying, exposure to an emotional event by
itself often doesn’t suffice
▪ Person needs to be in particular mental/ physical state
▪ Situational factors shouldn’t too strongly discourage crying
− Emotions that are typically associated with tears
▪ Feeling of powerlessness/ helplessness
→ Often in combination with other emotions (e.g. sadness, anger, fear, or disappointment)
▪ Positive emotions: being overwhelmed with joy, elation, or gratitude
→ Tears may reflect feelings that cannot be expressed in other behavior
− Types of emotional tears
▪ Physical pain tears
▪ (Egocentric) attachment-related pain tears
▪ Empathic-compassionate pain tears
▪ Societal pain tears
▪ Sentimental/ morally based tears
− Development of crying over the lifespan can be seen as starting from exclusively egocentric reasons and later
broadening to more societal reasons
− If we know what makes an individual cry, we have a good insight into their socioemotional development
− Why do only humans weep?
▪ Humans are unique with regards to their prolonged childhood
▪ Motorically fully developed but still in many respects dependent on adults
→ Crying with tears is in terms of survival a better option than just distress vocalizations
− Adult crying: when, where, and with whom?
▪ Evening/ at night
, → Because they’re at home, in the company of an attachment figure, tired, watching a movie/
listening to music, etc.
▪ At home
▪ In the company of attachment figures
− Why tears?
▪ Crying of infants puts mechanical pressure on the eyes
→ Activates lacrimal glands
1.4.Individual differences in crying
− Individual characteristics affect one’s crying behavior
▪ Gender differences in frequency and antecedents of crying
→ Women cry more in conflict situations
→ Men cry more often due to positive reasons
▪ Personality, attachment style, mental health, culture, socialization, previous exposure to traumatic
events, etc.
− Temporary changes in crying behavior
▪ May result from sleep deprivation, fatigue, stress, mood, mental health, becoming a parent, physical
health status, alcohol consumption, the use of other recreational substances/ medications, etc.
− Personality features
▪ Individuals high on neuroticism and/ or empathy cry more
▪ Individuals that are dismissively attached cry less
− Bekker and Vingerhoets: Factors responsible for individual differences in crying
▪ Differences in the degree of exposure to emotional situations
▪ Appraisal/ How individuals differ in the way they perceive and evaluate potentially emotional situations
▪ Crying threshold
→ Under the influence of physical and psychological factors
▪ (Learned) capacity to control one’s tears and social acceptance of tears
1.5.Functions of tearful crying
− Two broad categories of theories
▪ Intraindividual effects
→ Focus on effects on the criers themselves
▪ Interindividual effects
→ Focus on effects on others
1.5.1. Intraindividual effects
− Theories focusing on intraindividual effects mainly originate from the psychodynamic tradition
▪ Strongly connected with concept of catharsis
▪ Tears = safety valve
→ Release of emotional energy/ tension
→ If energy isn’t released via tears, it can have major impact on bodily processes and result in
psychosomatic dysfunction
− Frey: biochemical explanation
▪ Emphasis on blood clearance functions of lacrimal glands
→ Fits physiological concept of homeostasis
▪ Removal of stress hormones and other toxic substances produced during distress
, → Explains relief after crying
− Empirical findings
▪ People believe crying is beneficial
→ Lay public as well as mental health professionals
▪ BUT: Crying doesn’t always result in mood improvement
▪ For whom, and in what conditions does crying benefit the crying individual?
→ Personality and psychological state, characteristics of the eliciting event, and how others react
to crying all influence this
→ Controllable events: crying brings relief; uncontrollable events: mood worsening
− In retrospect, people report relief after having cried, while immediate measurements consistently show opposite
effect
▪ BUT: Later mood better than baseline mood before crying
→ Mood improvement after crying may need some time to develop
− Mood improvement might also reflect biases and a variety of physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and social
processes
▪ Intrapersonal effects may be intertwined with interpersonal effects
→ E.g. positive effects have been provoked by emotional support and comfort
▪ Mood improvement may also result from…
→ An increase in parasympathetic nervous system activity
→ Stimulation of release of substances (e.g. oxytocin, nerve growth factor, endogenous opioids)
which have mood-improving effects
→ Rhythmic sobbing/ inhalation of cool air
→ Application of various cognitive and behavioral mood management techniques by the
individual due to experience of low mood
− Criers score higher on empathy, connectedness with others, and perceived social support
▪ No difference in well-being!
▪ Interpersonal function!
1.5.2. Interindividual effects
− Nelson: attachment value of crying (Bowlby) is maintained throughout the lifespan
▪ Crying has been designed to be directed to attachment figures, to trigger their attention and support
− Hasson: tears serve interpersonal purposes
▪ Promote social bonding
▪ Inhibit aggression and violence in others
− Reactions to crying
▪ Male crier: negative response from men
▪ Female crier: sympathy, acceptance, and a greater willingness to help
▪ Male witnesses often confused and irritated
▪ Female witnesses tend to react positively and with understanding
▪ Crying generally elicits positive reactions of observers
→ Criers are considered more agreeable but also more neurotic
− Tears have a strong impact on…
, ▪ How the crying individual is perceived
▪ The emotions of the observer
→ E.g. greater empathy for crier, feel more connected with crier, greater willingness to help, etc.
▪ The self-reported behavior tendencies of the observer
− (In-)appropriate tears can make or break people
▪ Crying at work depends on circumstances (e.g. after loss accepted)
▪ Tears of public person may have strong effect on popularity
▪ Delicate balance between warm, empathic, honest, sensitive and emotionally not stable, incompetent,
not fit for the job, manipulative, etc.
− Vingerhoets: factors that influence effect of crying
▪ The situation and its perceived appropriateness
▪ The characteristics of the crying person
▪ The characteristics of the observer
▪ The relationship between crying person and observer
▪ The characteristics of the crying
2.Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Chapter 1 (pp. 3-30)
2.1.What is an emotion? – First ideas
− Emotion = psychological state or process that mediates between our concerns (or goals) and events of our
world
▪ At any one time an emotion gives priority to one concern over others
▪ Emotions aren’t irrational but locally rational
− Emotions are the source of our values
− Emotions help us form and engage in relationships
2.2.Nineteenth-century founders
2.2.1. Charles Darwin: The evolutionary approach
− Charles Darwin: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
▪ How are emotions expressed in humans and other animals?
▪ Where do our emotions come from?
→ Emotional expressions derive largely from habits that in our evolutionary/ individual past had
once been useful
→ Reflex-like mechanisms that can be triggered in circumstances analogous to those that
triggered the original habits
− Emotions are no longer functional
▪ Only link us to the past of our species and to our own infancy
− Despite his reservations, Darwin thought that emotions have useful functions
▪ They help us navigate our social interactions
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