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COURSE 2.8 defined by the action itself but by judgemental & evaluative processes
- only actions which can be scaled/measured are considered to constitute
PERFORMANCE @ WORK
performance
- outcome aspect refers to the consequences/result of the individual’s
behaviour
#1 PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE -> doesn’t only depend on factors other than the individuals performance
- criteria needed for evaluating the degree to which an individual’s performance meets
Learning Goals: What are the different types of job performance?
the organizational goals
How can you assess performance – which one is the best
measurement? PERFORMANCE AS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONCEPT
How do we reduce biases? by Borman & Motowidlo
#distortions
= distinguish between task & contextual performance
# strengths + weaknesses
- task performance (= refers to an individual’s proficiency w/ which he/she performs
activities which contribute to the organization’s technical core)
- can be direct (e.g.: production workers) or indirect (e.g.: managers or staff
CHAPTER 1
personnel)
Performance Concepts and Performance Theory
- contextual performance (= refers to activities which don’t contribute to the technical
by Sonnentag
core but which support the organizational, social, & psychological environment in which
= gives an overview of research on individual performance organization goals are pursued)
- 3 basic assumptions associated w/ the differentiation between task & contextual
Relevance of Individual Performance
performance
- highly performing individuals are needed in order to meet the organizations’ goals, to
1) activities relevant for task performance vary between jobs whereas contextual
deliver products & services + to achieve competitive advantage
performance activities are relatively similar across jobs
- it’s also important for the individual
2) task performance is related to ability, whereas contextual performance is
-> can be a source of satisfaction, feelings of mastery & pride
related to personality & motivation
-> low performance + not achieving goals -> dissatisfying or as personal
3) task performance is more prescribed & constitutes in-role behaviour,
failure
contextual performance is more discretionary & extra-role
-> is also rewarded by financial or other benefits
- performance – major prerequisite for future career development & success Task Performance
- is itself multi-dimensional & job-specific
Definition of Performance
- factors which refer to task performance
- differentiate between an action aspect & an outcome aspect of performance
1) job-specific task proficiency
- behavioural aspects refers to what an individual does in the work
2) non-job-specific task proficiency
situation – only behaviour which is relevant for the organizational goals
3) written & oral communication proficiency
- performance is what the organization hires one to do and do well – it’s not
4) supervision
1
, 5) management/administration - maintenance stage (= occurs when knowledge & skills needed to perform
=> each of them compromises subdimensions such as planning & organizing; well are learned -> task accomplishment becomes automatic)
guiding, directing, & motivating; training, coaching etc -> cognitive ability becomes less important -> other dispositional
factors (motivation, interest, values) increase in relevance
Contextual Performance
- empirical evidence that individuals differ with respect to patterns of intra-individual
- differentiate between 2 types of contextual performance, is similar between jobs
change -> no uniform pattern of performance development
1) behaviours which aim primarily @ the smooth functioning of the
- short-term variability in performance which is due to changes in an individual’s
organization as it’s @ the present moment
psycho-physiological state (+ processing capacity) across time
=> includes organizational citizenship behaviour w/ its 5
-> may be cause by long working hours etc
components (altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, courtesy, &
sportsmanship) PERSPECTIVES ON PERFORMANCE
2) proactive behaviours which aim @ changing & improving
work procedures & organizational processes in the future
=> include personal initiative, voice, taking charge
=> also a multidimensional concept
Relationship between Task & Contextual Performance
- can easily be distinguished @ the conceptual level + separated empirically
- they contribute uniquely to overall performance
- both are predicted by other individual variables
PERFORMANCE AS A DYNAMIC CONCEPT (+ is multidimensional)
= individual performance isn’t stable
-> variability reflects
1) learning processes & other long-term changes
-> performance initially increases w/ increasing time spent in a
specific job & later reaches a plateau
2) temporary changes in performance
- processes underlying performance change over time – from controlled processing
(the availability of declarative knowledge & optimal allocation of limited attentional Individual Differences Perspective
resources) to automatic processing (procedural knowledge & psychomotor abilities) = focuses on performance differences between individuals & seeks to identify
- changes in job performance are differentiated between a transition & a maintenance underlying factors
stage - core question: which individuals perform best?
- transition stage (= occurs when individuals are new in a job & tasks are novel) - differences in performance between individuals can be explained by individual
-> cognitive ability is important differences in abilities, personality, &/or motivation
2
,- Campbell experience & personality
-> general model of individual differences in performance -> suggests training programmes to improve individual prerequisites for high
-> differentiates performance component, determinants of job performance & performance
predictors of these determinants -> exposing individuals to specific experiences (e.g.: traineeships)
- performance component (= function of
Situational Perspective
1) declarative knowledge,
= refers to factors in the individual’s environment which stimulate & support or hinder
2) procedural knowledge & skills
performance
3) motivation)
- core question: in which situation do individuals perform best?
- largely neglects situational variables as predictors of performance
- most of the existing leadership research can be subsumed to this
- Motowidlo
- two major approaches about workplace factors & their relationship to individual
= agree that cognitive ability variables have an effect on task knowledge, task
performance
skills, & task habits
1) those that focus on situational factors which enhance & facilitate
-> task performance is predominantly a function of cognitive ability &
performance
contextual performance is a function of personality
2) and those that impede performance
-> both have minor factors on the other
1) -> Job Characteristics Model
- evidence speaks for a strong relationship between
= assumed that job characteristics have an effect on critical psychological
-> cognitive ability & job performance
states which in turn have an effect on personal & work outcomes (job
- general relationships between personality factors & job performance are relatively
performance)
small -> strongest relationship emerged for neuroticism/emotional stability &
-> expected an interaction effect w/ employee growth need strength
conscientiousness
= is a motivational model on job performance
-> differs between different jobs
// small but positive relationship between job characteristics & performance
- individual differences in motivation may be caused by differences in motivational traits
// causality
& skills
1) -> Sociotechnical Systems Theory
-> motivational traits are closely related to personality constructs
= describes work systems as composed of social & technical subsystems &
-> motivational skills refer to self-regulatory strategies pursued during goal
suggests that performance improvement can only follow from the joint
striving; are assumed to be more domain-specific & influenced by situational
optimization of both subsystems
factors + learning & training experiences; comprise emotional + motivational
- suggest a number of job design principles
control
-> more concerned w/ group performance than w/ individual performance
- self-efficacy is also highly relevant for performance
2) -> Role Theory
-> related to task & contextual performance
= role ambiguity & conflict are conceptualized as stressors that impede
- important for the learning process – in the beginning it’ a better predictor of
performance
performance than goals -> is reversed later on
// weak support for negative effects of role ambiguity & conflict
- practical implications
- situational constraints
-> focus on personnel selection – select individuals on basis of their abilities,
-> include stressors such as lack of necessary info, probs w/ machines &
3
, supplies as well as stressors within the work environment -> goal development, info search, planning, execution of an action
=> assumed to impair job performance directly & its monitoring, feedback processing can be distinguished
=> can also have an indirect effect on performance by requiring additional - structural point of view (= refers to its hierarchical organization)
regulation capacity - Broad Approach to Performance Regulation
// evidence is mixed -> incorporates the action theory as one of 5 perspectives
=> the lack of positive features in the work situation such as control @ work threatens 1) energetic regulation 2) emotional regulation 3) vitality regulation
performance more than the presence of some stressors 5) self-image regulation
- suggests: - closely linked to specific performance improvement interventions
- individual job performance can be improved by job design interventions e.g.: goal setting, feedback interventions
- Goal-setting Theory
Performance Regulation Perspective
= assumes that goals affect performance via
= takes a different look @ individual performance & is less interested in
1) efforts, 2) persistence, 3) direction, 4) task strategies
person/situational predictors/performance
++ supported by multiple studies
= focuses on the performance process itself & conceptualizes it as an action process
- core question: how does the performance process look like + what is happening when
someone is performing
PERFORMANCE IN CHANGING WORLD OF WORK
- Expert Research Approach within Cognitive Psychology
= main goals: to identify what distinguishes individuals @ Continuous Learning
different performance levels - consequence to quickly changing work requirements due to technological innovations
= focuses on process characteristics of the task accomplishment etc
process - competence development & learning become increasingly important
= aims @ description of these differences between high & - individuals need to be willing & able to engage in continuous learning processes in
moderate performers order to accomplish their present & future tasks successfully
- findings: high performers differ from moderate performers in the - suggested to incorporate learning into the performance concept
way they approach their tasks & how they arrive @ solutions -> adaptive performance (learning constitutes a major performance
-> during problem comprehension HP focus on abstract & dimension)
general info, proceed to specific info & apply a rational strategy in - when learning becomes a continuous necessity, the duration & occurrence of the
which they combine & integrate various aspects of the task & solution traditional skill acquisition vs. maintenance stage changes – skill acquisition is no longer
process a single event which is completed before maintenance starts
-> focus more on long-range goals, show more planning in complex -> individuals will go back & forth - ability will become increasingly important
& ill-structured tasks (not in well-structured)
- Action Theory Approach Proactivity
= describes the performance process from both a process & a structural point = becomes increasingly important
of view = to perform well is no longer sufficient to comply w/ prescribed job requirements but
- process point of view (= focuses on the sequential aspects of a action) to go beyond what is formally requested
4
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