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Complete summary of Social Media: Risks & Opportunities (lectures + papers)
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, SOCIAL MEDIA: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 1
In the USA 97% of teens uses internet daily, and almost 50% uses it almost constantly.
Social media: all websites and applications that enable users to create and share content and/or to participate
in social networking.
Risk: a situation that involves a potential exposure to danger.
Opportunity: a chance for…
Exam 80% total grade. Open (3 questions, total 68/100 points) and MC questions (16 questions, 2 points, total
32/100)
Group assignment 20% + pass/fail pitch. Expert opinion letter + video pitch.
Choose a claim.
Write an expert opinion (argument in favor of the claim or against the claim or both).
Provide sound arguments.
Based on scientific literature.
Target is an organization.
Page numbers in-text (between brackets). Reference is reference list is as normal.
Pitch:
Target is everyone.
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, SOCIAL MEDIA: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 2
Paper 1: Feel Good, Do Good Online? Spillover and Crossover Effects of Happiness on Adolescents’ Online
Prosocial Behavior
Much previous research has focused on adolescents’ antisocial use of digital media, e.g., cyberbullying.
However, adolescents more often behave prosocially online. Previous studies indicated that offline prosocial
behavior and happiness are related. Moreover, happiness and prosocial behavior have been found to mutually
reinforce each other through a positive feedback loop. For instance, prosocial spending (i.e., spending money
on someone else) increases happiness, which in turn stimulates prosocial spending. The Broaden-and-Build
Theory suggests that experiencing positive emotions broadens perspectives and builds enduring relations.
Experiencing positive emotions expands people’s mindsets (broaden). Stimulating them to think of others and
do good (building relationships).
Online prosocial behavior refers to “voluntary behavior carried out in an electronic context with the intention
of benefitting particular others or promoting harmonious relations with others”, like comforting a friend via
digital technologies, online sharing of resources and information with a classmate, and helping out peers out on
social network sites. Only few studies have explored online prosocial behavior. They have reported that females
report more online prosocial behavior than males, and that online prosocial behavior is associated with offline
prosocial behavior, perceived popularity and social reference, being the recipient of online social behavior,
frequency of using digital technologies, relational self-construal, altruism and reciprocity, and positive and
negative emotions.
Spillover refers to the transmission of emotional states from one context to another within individuals (e.g.,
work to home). Crossover refers to the transmission of emotional states from person to person, between
individuals (e.g., from parents to children). Most of this kind of research has been done on transmission of bad
moods. Few studies revealed that spillover and crossover also occur for positive states. Emotional transmission
(crossover of emotions) occurs when events or emotions in one family member’s immediate daily experience
show a consistent predictive relationship to subsequent emotions or behaviors in another family member.
In the current study, the spillover and crossover effects of adolescents’ and their parents’ daily happiness on
adolescents’ online prosocial behavior is measured via a daily diary for five consecutive school/workdays,
adolescents and their parents completed a short diary twice a day: right after school/work (T1), and at home at
the adolescent’s bedtime (T2). There are 3 hypotheses, which, taken together, result in the following mediation
model in which adolescents’ and parents’ T1 happiness predict adolescents’ T2 online prosocial behavior via
their T2 happiness. Multigroup analyses are conducted in order to be able to examine possible gender
differences in spillover and differences between dyads in crossover. Digital technologies are added as a control
variable. Daily diary studies are ideally suited for spillover and crossover studies, as they reduce recall bias
(retrospection), as the time span between the event or experience and the report thereof is reduced. It allows
‘within-person’ analysis, as well as ‘between-person’.
2
, H1 Spillover: adolescents’ happiness after school predicts their happiness at home.
This hypothesis is confirmed. The between-person finding is that when comparing across adolescents, happier
adolescents after school were happier adolescents at home. The within-person finding is that when adolescents
are happier after school, they are happier at home later that day.
H2 Crossover: parents’ happiness after work predicts their children’s happiness at home.
This hypothesis is only partially confirmed. On days that mothers were happier when they returned from work,
their daughters felt happier at home (later that evening). This effect was not noticeable for sons.
H3 Adolescents’ happiness at home predicts their online prosocial behavior.
This hypothesis is only partially confirmed. On days that girls reported more happiness at home, they reported
more online prosocial behavior (within-person effect).
Mediation
Two significant indirect effects were found for girls: within-persons, girls’ own and their mothers’ T1 happiness
predicted their T2 OPB via girls’ T2 happiness. Stated differently: on days that girls felt happier after school or
that their mothers were happier after work, they behaved more prosocially online, and this association was
explained by girls’ higher happiness at home.
Summarized, the results suggest 5 things:
1. Adolescents’ school-related happiness predicted their happiness at home later that day, indicating a
spillover effect of happiness from school to home. This suggests that not only negative states are
transferred from school to home, but also the positive states are carried over to the family context.
2. Across days, adolescents’ average levels of school-related happiness were positively associated with
their average happiness at home. These findings indicate a stability of happiness across days and
contexts.
3. Within days, girls’ happiness at home was linked with their OPB: on days that girls felt happier, they
behaved more prosocially online. A possible explanation for this link between positive affect and
prosocial behavior is that prosocial behaviors can be used instrumentally to maintain an already
existing positive feeling, referred to as the ‘feel-good, de-good’ effect. The mood maintenance process
suggests that people in a happy mood seek out positive experiences to maintain or elevate their mood.
It is also in accordance with the Broaden-and-Build Theory.
a. This effect was not measured for boys. It is unclear why this effect only counts for girls.
Perhaps boys’ OPB is less contingent on their affective state than girls’ OPB. Previous research
also has suggested that women are more emotionally expressive online than men.
4. On days that mothers reported higher work-related happiness, their daughters were happier in the
evening at home, indicating a crossover effect of mothers’ happiness to their daughters’ happiness.
This may be explained by the fact that mothers are often more involved in parenting their adolescent
children than fathers, and that mothers are particularly important sources of advice and
understanding.
5. Mediation analyses suggest that girls’ happiness at home explained the association between girls’ own
and their mothers’ school- or work-related happiness, and girls’ OPB at the day level. On days that
adolescent girls or their mother were happier when they returned from school or work, girls felt
happier later that night at home, and behaved more prosocially online. Happiness seems to engender
a ripple effect across contexts, between (female) individuals, and to behavior.
There are a few limitations:
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