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Summary Course 2.7 Developmental Psychology
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An overview of course 2.7 Developmental Psychology, with all the information you will need for the exam
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Summary 2.7 Developmental PsychologyFROM INFANCY TO OLD AGE
Property of Sarina Verwijmeren
Erasmus University
International Psychology PBL
Page 1 of 43
,Problem 1 The Burden of Being Bullied
Primary resources: Jiménez-Barbero et al. (2016), Juvonen & Graham. (2014), van der Ploeg et al. (2016), Vreeman & Carroll
(2007)
Secondary resources: -
Total amount of resources: 4
VREEMAN & CARROLL (2007)
Introduction
Bullying is a form of aggression in which 1 or more child(ren) repeatedly and intentionally intimidate, harass or physically harm a
victim. Victims are seen as being weaker than the bullies. Bullying can have a lot of forms but is always: with aggression (1), repetition
(2), context of a relationship (3), and imbalance of power (4). It often occurs in situations in which there is minimal supervision.
Bullying can impact on a physical, emotional, social and health level. Both bullies and victims are more likely to be depressed and
have suicidal tendencies. Being the victim of bullying can also lead to lower self-esteem which can be carried into adulthood. Due to
this, it is likely for somebody to feel socially rejected. Furthermore, it can lead to school absence which affects academic performance.
About 20% of victims, report feeling afraid during the school day. Now-a-days there is a lot of research but the results are often
inconclusive. School programs against bullying seem to have a positive effect in 30-70% of the cases. Note: the objective of this
study is to review school-based interventions to reduce or prevent bullying with the goal of determining whether these interventions
worked. They tested the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program.
Method
They did a literature study in which they reviewed results of previously published articles (total of 26). They evaluated curriculum
changes (1), multidisciplinary or whole-school approaches (2), social skill training (3), and social worker support (4). They used the
outcome measures: bullying (1), victimization (2), aggression (3), violence (4), school achievement (5), and attitude towards bullying
(6).
Results and Discussion
10 studies evaluated the implementation of a new curriculum. The curriculum interventions did not consistently decrease bullying,
and several suggested that the bullying within the intervention group increased. However, one study found that the intervention
broadened their definition of bullying slightly (leads to more reported cases of bullying but maybe not actual increase). Another study
has found that physical and verbal violence decreased. The results also depend on the age group (younger children noticed an
increase in victimization whilst older children had a decrease). Teacher results regarding the self-report list also showed a significant
decrease in antisocial behavior and physical violence. This strategy is easy to implement, but does not show great effects (1).
10 studies evaluated the multidisciplinary approach in which they changed sanctions, teacher trainings, classroom curriculums,
conflict resolution training and individual counseling. It was reported that there was an increased victimization and social exclusion
for boys, and increased bullying for boys and girls based on student self-reports. The schools’ degree of involvement in the program
was directly related to positive effects from the antibullying program, particularly for girls. Overall, these whole-school studies had
positive effects on bullying. Some studies have found that there was a decrease in bullying or victimization. However, student reports
of physical and verbal attacks did not significantly change. OBPP leads to less bullying, victimization, anti-social behavior and a
better school climate. It is hard to implement at different school settings, however. Additionally, the effect seems to disappear over 2
years (2).
Targeted interventions, social and behavioral skill groups and social workers had less positive effects. Social worker support
seems to lead to less theft, drug usage and fighting.
Limitations
They have mostly found self-report for the outcome measures, whilst peer/parent/teacher reports are also interesting.
They have only used English studies.
OVERAL CONCLUSION:
1. Bullying is hard to define but is proven to lead to social complications later in life.
2. The results on both a new curriculum and multidisciplinary approach are mixed, although the latter seems most useful.
3. Other types of interventions seem to have no significant effect.
Page 2 of 43
,JUVONEN & GRAHAM (2014)
Introduction
Since we have become more aware of the extreme effects bullying can sometimes have, more research has been done to the effects
of bullying. These researches rely on childhood aggression and aggression towards other children.
Definition and prevalence of bullying
Bullying involves targeted intimidation or humiliation. A bully is typically a physically stronger individual. Bullying can be done in a
number of ways but is usually the result of a power imbalance between two parties. This makes bullying different from a conflict. It
is not sure whether bullying needs to be of repeated nature. Approximately 20-25% of children are involved in bullying in either a
bully role, victim role or both.
Stability of bullying and victimization
Aggression is a factor that seems to be instable over time. Therefore, we can assume that less than 10% of the bullies will be chronic
bullies throughout childhood. It is assumed that most children age out their tendency to behave like a bully in an aggressive manner.
It has not yet been researched whether being a victim of bullying is stable or not. They did find that the older the children got, the
less self-reported victimization was found as well as less physical intimidation. About 9% of bullies have become victims and 6% of
victims have become bullies. That suggests that being a victim is also non-stable. Note: there also seems to be some overlap between
the role of victim and bully; these roles seem to be dynamic.
Forms and functions of bullying behaviors
Bullying is often classified as being either direct or indirect. Examples of direct confrontation are physical aggression, threats and
name-calling. This is often intimidating or humiliating. Indirect bullying are acts like spreading rumors and exclusion from the group.
This is often relational manipulation; it changes the way people look at the victim. There seem to be no age differences between
using direct or indirect bullying as a method, although physical aggression tends to be used less when an individual grows older.
Note: more research should be done which should be more specific. Physical aggression tends to be used more by males and
females tend to use more relational aggression. When females do use physical aggression, they are not as aggressive as males are.
As children grow older, boys seem to use relational aggression forms more often because physical attacks are less socially
acceptable.
Bullying and social dominance
It is hard to find out why children use any form of bullying in the first place. Some studies suggest that it is the result of a lack of social
skills or an antisocial personality. However, especially indirect bullying actually requires social skills. It may be so that bullies are
cold, calculated and lack empathy. They often report that they want to be visible, influential and admired. Bullies may strive to
dominate and acquire a high social status. Bullying can be considered a way to establish a dominant position in the group. This is
especially important during transition when it is unsure what the new social ranking will be (e.g. going from middle school to high
school). These changes can either be developmental (e.g. puberty) or environmental (e.g. moving). Family functioning and values
can also contribute to becoming a bully.
Self-inflated views and cognitive biases of bullies
Because high social status and bullying seem to be correlated, it is not surprising that bullies often have an inflated self-view. They
tend to overestimate themselves socially, academically and athletically. Individuals who are socially adjusted do often overestimate
their abilities. Bullies also report feeling less depressed, less social anxiety and less loneliness. An explanation for this effect might
be that bullies blame others instead of themselves for negative events (information processing bias). Additionally, bullies often
receive positive feedback from peers (positive bystander reinforcement). Peers might do this to protect their own social status,
reputation and physical safety rather than liking the bully. Therefore, bullying is reinforced by peers.
Plight of victims
Victims of bullying often show psychological problems (e.g. depression), physical problems (e.g. headaches) and/or academic
difficulties. The direction of the association between being a victim and these factors is not clear. It might be the result of bullying but
it also might be why this person is a target. The target is rarely chosen randomly. Victims are often submissive, anxious, insecure
and sensitive. These kind of people will make bullies feel most powerful. Internalizing problems (thinking that it is your fault) and lack
of confidence in social interactions are big risk factors of getting bullied. Another group that is an “easy target” is the provocative
victims. They tend to reply with aggression, which is in turn rewarding for the bullies. These individuals often tend to have hyperactivity
disorders. These individuals suffer from the role of victim but do not benefit from the role as bully.
Page 3 of 43
, Individual and social risk factors
There are also nonbehavioral characteristic which increase the risk of being bullied. Obesity, off-time pubertal maturation, disabilities,
and children with a different sexual orientation are at risk of being bullied. This might be described as a social misfit. A lack of fit
between the individual and the group can lead to the risk of being bullied. When someone is bullied, they get less social support
which in turn makes then an easy victim again. Children who are depressed or have difficulties establishing friendships might also
be at risk. These characteristics are especially important when an individual has a lower social status. Although friends do not need
to stand up against the bullies, social support can have a big positive influence on the state of the victim.
Cyclical processes and consequences of peer victimization
These factors might also be a consequence of peer victimization. The effect size for the studies which assumed that these
characteristics are a result are bigger than the effect size of the studies which assumed that they are a cause. However, these results
are not significant. It is sure however, that it can lead to psycho-social difficulties later in life. It can even predict psychiatric problems
such as anxiety related disorders and mood disorders. They also tend to be at high risk of suicide related behavior. This can be due
to only one encounter of being bullied.
Mediating mechanism underlying psychosocial problems
Victims of bullying often interpret the situation as uncontrollable and internal (like it is their fault). This might result in self-blame. This
may account for why submissive victims are socially anxious and depressed. Other-blame might explain why other victims react
provocatively. These individuals externalize their problems over time.
Mechanisms underlying school difficulties and health problems
Victims of bullying are likely to not do well in school because they tend to be absent and receive low grades from teachers. The
meditational model by Nishina stated that the association between being bullied and low grades might be mediated by emotional
distress and somatic complaints. A possible physiological pathway by which peer victimization may give rise to health problems
implicates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. People who are victims of bullying have adjusted cortisol levels. They have
also found that victims of bullying show more activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex which is in turn associated with more
self-reported feelings of stress. It is also associated with physical representations of pain and is shown to be a predictor of depression.
This region is also associated with affective processes which might explain why victims have a hard time handling negative emotions.
Bullying in context
Most bullying happens in school context and online. Cyberbullying is electronically mediated bullying involving texting, emailing,
instant message, posting messages on social networks on in chat rooms. Cyberbullying can also be either direct or indirect.
Cyberbullying spreads at a very high speed to the individual in question and others. Cyberbullying is also often anonymous and there
is very little social control.
The school context
Greater ethnic diversity at both the classroom and school levels is related to a lower sense of vulnerability among Latino and African
American students, including less self-reported victimization. Relationships might be more balanced in ethnically diverse schools.
Making (small) teams increased the feeling of victimization in groups. Student who do better than other students also tend to feel
victimized. Deviating from a strong norm, leads to being at risk of getting bullied. However, being part of the majority and being a
victim increases odds of self-blame. Children in a less demanding curriculum with deviant friends are likely to engage in bullying
behavior.
Interventional to prevent and reduce bullying
Some prevention programs include the whole school, others only the at-risk individuals (typically bullies). Some programs focus on
skill building whereas other programs use punishments. A schoolwide intervention targets all students, parents and workers in the
school. They want to find a collective solution because they assume that bullying is a systematic social problem. One of the most
important programs is the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program. This approach requires increased awareness of the nature of the
problem, heightened monitoring, and systematic and consistent responses to incidents of bullying. Students have to create rules
regarding bullying, teachers get trainings and everyone is made aware of the consequences of bullying at the specific school.
According to research, this has led to a decrease in self/teacher-reported bullying and victimization. Other studies (like Vreeman &
Carroll), have found only modest effects. This can be due to the fact that the program is used a bit differently in every school, that it
relied on self-reports and the program was made to apply to small classrooms with homogeneous student populations. Another
Page 4 of 43
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