Session 1: Introductie (27/2)
1. Introduction 27/2
2. History - Diplomacy Before the Modern Era – 6/3
- Before the rise of the state system
- Before it started resembling to the diplomacy that there is now
- Looking at innovation and experimentation across different systems. Looking at the
differences, how was it different?
3. Theory - Definitions, Concepts, and Diplomatic Theory - 27/3
- What is diplomacy?
4. Leaders – The Evolution of Diplomacy at the Highest Level– 17/4
5. Service Delivery – Crisis Assistance and the Societization of Diplomacy – 24/4
6. Digitalisation - Upskilling Practices, Adaptation and Mediatization – 8/5
7. Science – The Diplomatic Challenge of Science & Technology– 15/5
8. Course Summary – 22/5
Examen
- Societal dimension in diplomacy! (the profession and practice of diplomacy is connected
with society) (vindt hij interessant)
- 5 vragen → 2 invullen
- Essay vraag
- Schriftelijk
- There will be mock questions
- 1 A4 per vraag
- Aantonen dat ge die artikels gelezen hebt
- Mag in Nederlands
- Referencing authors can help & questions about summitry and digitalization)
- Vraag oplossen met inleiding, midden, conclusie!!
We are not closing our embassies in Moscou, although they barely have anything to do. The
embassies are there to symbolise the community of states.
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,Session 2: History - Diplomacy Before the Modern Era
Questions exam
1. Compare diplomacy in two different diplomatic systems/methods. (so Ancient near East
and Ancient Greece and Italian renaissance,...) (Cohen) How were the relationships
between different polities organized in different ways?
2. You can look at diplomacy in the premodern world as a period of experimentation and
innovation (Boseman ‘diplomacy is the most complex institution’) so when groups of
people decided they had to talk to each other, they had to figure out how to do that.
Give examples of diplomatic experimentations. What kind of experimentation was going
on?
3. The Italian renaissance is often seen as a turning point for the birthplace of modern
diplomacy. Italian renaissance is seen as the cradle for diplomacy, do you disagree or
not and why?
Several definitions of diplomacy exist, putting emphasis on different aspects of the art:
History is like a foreign country, there were no states/pre-industrial revolution/…
What is important about diplomacy?
- Diplomacy is about managing relations between polities
- Diplomacy is a regulating mechanism and it’s a social institution that is reflective of the
world in which it is operative
- There was diplomacy before the state!!
- Diplomacy should be understood in its evolution as adaptation to change
- Diplomacy had an uneven development in different regions
- Diplomacy was not a Western invention
- Diplomacy will continue to evolve
- Diplomacy was tied up with trade (trade was a vehicle)
- The terminology around diplomacy came to use in the 18th century France
- Wiseman: Open cabinets that should replace a diplomacy of secrecy
Diplomacy: ‘The institutions and processes by which states and others represent themselves
and their interests to one another’
→ Diplomacy is a social institution, reflecting the social world and thus cultural biases.
Its primary function is representation. Foreign policy/International Relations is the
outcome of diplomacy, which is guided by the interests of states and others.
Diplomacy: ‘Diplomacy is the art of negotiating agreements in a precise and ratifiable form.’ (Harold Nicolson,
prominent author on diplomacy) Emphasis on the major activity of diplomacy; negotiation.
Diplomacy: MEDIUM of International Relations: In its core, diplomacy is about managing relationships in
International life. Relationships have become more complex, actors more diverse... The question for diplomacy is,
what separates countries and what binds them (elements of rivalry and cooperation)?
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,Historical diplomatic systems:
Literacy was a big development in diplomacy
The traditional definition of diplomacy, being “Diplomacy is the art of negotiating agreements
in a precise and ratifiable form”, is based upon the origins of Diplomacy. As this definition
suggests, diplomacy relies upon literature (agreements in precise and ratifiable form).
Diplomacy was hence born with the rise of a literate society.
The earliest evidence of diplomacy is found in royal inscriptions dedicated to the Gods in
Mesopotamia, modern Iraq (Near Eastern diplomacy). This CUNEIFORM DIPLOMACY (= a
network of city-states served by messengers traveling sometimes long distances) dates to about
2500 BC and refers to relations between city-states. In the scripts, references are made to
armed struggles, coalitions, border disputes and ARBITRATION (the settlement of a dispute by a
third party). But there was also a code of correct international custom (protocol)
Apparently, there was a sense of family of nations, interdependence and a sense to do business
with one another. Main function of the diplomats: Carrying messages of Kings. Characteristic of
early diplomacy is slowness! No plains, internet,... Camels!
The CUNEIFORM DIPLOMACY developed from 2500 BC to +- 500 BC and entered a new phase
with Sargonic hegemony, introducing treaties such as marriage alliances, containing the
following classic formula: “your friend is my friend, your enemy is my enemy” and
extraterritorial rights for commercial means (taxation to foreigners, trade and damages). Later,
from the archives of Mari, it is found that cuneiform diplomacy became even more advanced.
An early diplomatic passport and letters of accreditation identifying the bearers were found at
Mari. There was a guesthouse for visiting diplomats. There was proof that there might have
been a diplomatic corps. Envoys were now upgraded from being plain messengers to
“ambassador plenipotentiary”, an individual who could negotiate and conclude an agreement.
Note that diplomatic immunity up until this point like we know it today was less likely to exist
(meaning that diplomats could be detained, however, they did enjoy some protection).
In times of the Amarna Archive, the cuneiform diplomatic system became truly multicultural,
including three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Characteristic for this period, was a long-
lasting stability and peace. Although the contemporaries did not think in terms of balance of
power, there was resistance towards expansionist powers. There was a great sense of
brotherhood amongst the great kings, and the legitimacy of one strengthened the other.
At the heart of the Amarna great peace was the emissary, possessing refined diplomatic skills.
There was also a body of customary law deriving from treaties by now (norms of conduct and
extensive precedent).
Note → The vassals of kingdoms were not allowed to maintain independent diplomatic
relations!
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, With the rise of the neo-assyrian Empire (911-612BC) the international system shifted from one
strategic parity to imperial hegemony (protection in return for loyalty)
- But themes of old diplomacy remained
Early example of public diplomacy = the direct appeal to the population, thus bypassing
officials. The sieging Assyrian official addresses the Jerusalem populace from outside the wall,
attempting to persuade them to surrender.
Key points
- Diplomatic messages & treaties have been found in the middle east dating back 2500BC
- Diplomacy took the form of the exchange of letters and gifts carried by royal envoys; a
body of customary law and protocol governed it
- Kings used diplomacy to promote personal relations and interests of the city-states
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