These notes contains the full course of "PLANTS AS FACTORIES FOR BIOMOLECULES". In them genetic approaches, molecular farming tecniques, extraction methods (and much more topics) are explained and resumed in details.
Chapters:
1. INTRODUCTION 2. BIOFORTIFICATION 3. SECONDARY METABOLITES 4. PLANT ...
The first 4 characteristics that that a platform (production system) must have?
- Safe
- Efficient
- Low-cost
- Sustainable
Low growth’s cost → sun water and soil in general
PLANTS:
- produce most of the oxygen we breathe
- produce most of the chemically stored energy we consume as food
- are sources of therapeutic drugs
- provide fibers for paper or fabric → cotton bowl (natural cellulose fiber)
- are sources of biorenewable products
- provide renewable energy sources
- produce a broad range of VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds), with the largest groups being
terpenoids and green leaf volatiles (GLVs); VOCs are also involved in indirect defence by attracting
natural enemies of herbivores and are also involved in the plant-to-plant communication.
Plants are eukaryotes → can produce complex proteins and molecules.
Plans pathogens are very different compared to human’s ones → low risk of contamination.
Disadvantage = different glycosylation compared to humans
Every food chain starts with plants + sun
“Every C in us derived for a CO2 molecule processed by plants”
Plants are more than 90% of the biomass on earth.
1
,FOOD COMES FROM PLANTS
Food provides us nutriment and nutrients can be
divided in 3 groups:
Phytonutrients: plant compounds with protective
functions.
Xenohormesis is a biological principle that explains how environmentally stressed plants produce
bioactive compounds that can confer stress resistance and survival benefits to animals that consume
them. Plant-based foods contain more than 100,000 different disease preventing nutrient.
SOMECARBOHYDRATES ARE SOLUBLE DIETARY FIBERS
Soluble or viscous fibers are physiologically active: they decrease uptake of fats and sugars from the
intestine; they are fermented by intestinal bacteria into beneficial short-chain fatty acids (e. g. butyrate).
Viscous fibers include gums, pectin and mucilage and they can feel sticky or mucous-like; the gel-like
matrix they form is essential to their function in the intestine. Inulin (?)
SOMECARBOHYDRATES ARE INSOLUBLE DIETARY FIBERS
Many insoluble dietary fibers are inert but nevertheless may be beneficial to intestinal health; whole
wheat foods or wheat bran (crusca), many vegetables and fruits skins are good sources of insoluble
fiber. Insoluble fibers include cellulose and lignin: they may help with the feeling of satiety.
LIPIDS (fats and oils)
Lipids are hydrocarbons, energy-rich compounds; they release energy when oxidized. Plants and
animals store energy as lipids and lipids are also normal components of every cell and the basis of the
cell membranes. At room temperature, fats are solid, and oils are liquid, but both are lipids.
The composition and functions of plant lipids vary depending on the type of plant. Lipids can be found
in seeds or fruits. Indeed, oils are lipids extracted form plant seeds or fruits.
Seeds are so full of oil that we can harvest it and sell it. The most common seed oil fatty acids are oleic
acid and linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is essential fatty acid – we can’t make it ourselves.
2
,PROTEINS – ENZYMES
Plants can be great sources of proteins → however, they may have insufficient levels of one or more
essential amino acids (i.e., methionine).
Papain: Powerful digestive enzyme commonly found and extracted from the papaya fruit (Carica
papaya); the papain plays a key role in digestive processes involving breaking down
tough meat fibers.
Bromelain: Proteolytic enzyme found in fresh pineapple; it is often used to treat muscle injuries and
as a digestive aid.
MICRONUTRIENTS
They are a group of compounds that are needed by our bodies in small amounts; they perform a wide
range of functions in the body; chronic micronutrient deficiencies are thus a major cause of disease
(anaemia → caused by iron deficiency; goiter → caused by iodine deficiency).
Vitamins: essential nutrients that we cannot synthesize. Vitamin A (in carrots, mango, papaya), vitamin C
or ascorbic acid (in oranges), vitamin B1 or thiamine, vitamin B3 or niacin, vitamin B9 or folate.
Minerals: essential for human health.
- Potassium (K+) = helps to maintain osmotic balance (abundant in fruits, beans, potatoes).
- Iron (Fe) = assimilated as heme (from animals) and non-heme (from plants) forms; non-heme iron is
less efficiently assimilated; leafy greens and beans are sources of non-heme iron.
- selenium (Se) = Brazil nuts are a good source of Se; the Se content of foods depends largely on soil
composition.
PHYTONUTRIENTS
Plants use these phytochemicals as: antimicrobial, attractants/repellents, or deterrents against
herbivores. They can be classified into four major classes:
- terpenoids
- phenolic compounds
- alkaloids
- Sulphur-containing compounds.
Cruciferous vegetables (Brassica oleracea) contain isothiocyanates (R-N=C=S) that have anti-cancer
activities; these vegetables are associated with a reduced risk of total and cardiovascular disease
mortality. Sulforaphane has a role in aging and neurodegeneration.
Glucoraphanin (sulforaphane precursor) is contained in vacuoles inside broccoli’s cells.
Myrosinase is localized in the cytoplasm, and it cut glucoraphanin into glucose and sulforaphane.
When the plant is damaged, i.e., by
harvesting, depredation, infection, or even
chewing, the vacuoles brake, releasing
glucoraphanin, which can then interact with
myrosinase to form sulforaphane (right
panel).
3
, PLANTS PRODUCE AN AMAZING ASSORTMENT OF USEFUL CHEMICALS
- coffee beans: CHLOROGENIC ACID (ester) = antioxidant activity, antibacterial, hepato- and cardio-
protective, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, neuroprotective, a central nervous system stimulator.
- cloves: CHAVICOL and EUGENOL = used as antiseptic and anaesthetic.
- cinnamon bark: CINNAMALDEHHYDE = used to treat respiratory tract infection (gram negatives).
- nutmeg (noce moscata): SAFROLE and MYRISTICIN = are used as insecticide.
- ginger rhizome: GINGEROLS = anti-inflammatory.
- red and black peppers: PIPERINE, CAPSAICIN and NORDIHYDROCAPSAICIN = anti-inflammatory.
- green tea: EPICATECHIN and EPIGALLOCATECHIN = antioxidant activity, regulate blood pressure,
increase weight loss, and protect the brain from disease.
- Vanilla: VANILLIN = (in higher doses) antioxidant, antimutagenic, antiangiogenetic, analgesic.
- coca plants: COCAINE
- Papaver somniferum: MORPHINE (alkaloid)
- Catharantus roseus: VINCRISTINE = complex structure it cannot be synthetized artificially (only
harvested in plant; the problem is the low production)
- Digitalis purpurea: DIGOXIN
- Taxus brevifolia: TAXOL or PACLITAXEL
- Salix alba: SALICYLIC ACID
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE NOW CAN BE AUGMENTED WITH MODERN OMIC APPROACHES
- Metabolomics: used to identify medicinally active compounds
- Metabolic engineering: used to increase their production and diversity.
- Genomic and proteomic: to improve the traditional knowledge of secondary metabolites production
by identifying key genes and key proteins to understand the main step of metabolic pathways of
metabolites.
Metabolomic = entire asset of metabolites inside plant
The European Commission defines the bioeconomy as "the production of renewable biological
resources and the conversion of these resources and waste streams into value added products, such as
food, feed, bio-based products and bioenergy”.
Plants can replace petroleum in many products and purpose → biofuels produced from starch, corn
seed, and sugarcane.
Biodiesel is obtained from oil (seed and algae).
Plant-based plastic is a type of bioplastic that is created from agricultural scraps, often from corn,
sugarcane, wheat, or food waste.
Plants are the foundation of the biobased economy.
4
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