Summary Biological & Cognitive Psychology (English) Year 1 Part 1 VU Amsterdam Psychology
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Course
Biological & Cognitive Psychology
Institution
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU)
Book
Physiology of Behavior
Very comprehensive summary in English on the subject material for the course Biological & Cognitive Psychology (part 1) in the 2nd period of year 1 at the VU Amsterdam. This document summarizes the literature of the books Physiology of Behavior - Carlson & Birkett and Cognitive Psychology - Goldste...
The adult brain forms connections between the cells in the brain, called neurons,
throughout lifetime. Dozens of researchers are making new discoveries every year
about neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons.
Scientific explanation takes two forms:
Generalization refers to explanations as examples of general laws, which are
revealed through experiments. Reduction refers to explanations of complex
phenomena in terms of simpler ones.
Dualism: a belief in the dual nature of reality. The mind and body are separate.
Monism: a belief that everything in the universe consists of matter and energy and
that the mind is a phenomenon produced by the workings of the nervous system.
Ancient world
Ancient Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese cultures considered the heart to be the seat
of thought and emotions. The ancient Greeks did too, but Hippocrates concluded
that this role should be assigned to the brain. Aristotle did not agree. He thought the
brain served to cool the passions of the heart.
Galen thought that if Hippocrates was right the brain would not have been placed
so far from the heart.
Seventeenth century (1600s)
Philosophers and physiologists contributed greatly to the foundation of today’s
behavioural neuroscience. Descartes believed that animals were mechanical
devices (their behaviour was controlled by environmental stimuli) and that the
human body was a machine. He observed, some movements of the human body
were automatic and involuntary reflexes: reactions like this did not require
participation of the mind; they occurred automatically.
He was the first to suggest that a link exists between the human mind and the brain.
He noted that the brain contained hollow chambers (the ventricles) that were filled
with fluid. Galvani found that electrical stimulation of a frog’s nerve caused
contraction of the muscle to which it was attached.
Nineteenth century (1800s)
Müller applied experimental techniques to physiology. His most important
contribution to the study of the physiology of behaviour was his doctrine of specific
nerve energies he observed that although all nerves carry the same basic
message (an electrical impulse) we perceive the messages of different nerves in
different ways. Because different parts of the brain receive messages from different
nerves, the brain must be functionally divided. Flourens removed various parts of
animals’ brains and observed their behaviour. By doing this he could infer the
function of the missing portion of the brain. This method is called experimental
ablation.
, Broca applied this principle to the human brain by
observing the behavior of people whose brains had
been damaged by strokes. Broca’s observations led
him to conclude that a portion of the cerebral
cortex on the front part of the left side of the brain
performs functions that are necessary for speech
Broca’s area.
Helmholtz was the first scientist to attempt to measure the speed of conduction
through nerves. Purkinje studied both the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Contemporary research (1900s)
As researchers continue to refine their understanding of the structures and functions
of the brain, new discoveries about pathways and circuits abound. New advances in
technology enabled treatments for severe depression and Parkinson’s disease using
deep brain stimulation techniques.
Darwin formulated the principles of natural selection and evolution. Darwin’s theory
emphasized that all of an organism’s characteristics have functional significance.
Functionalism: a belief that characteristics of living organisms perform useful
functions. Organisms of today are the result of a long series of changes due to
genetic variability. We cannot say that any physiological mechanisms of living
organisms have a purpose. But they do have functions. For example, the forelimb
structures (figure 1.5) are adapted for different functions in different species of
mammals.
Natural selection: if an individual’s characteristics permit it to reproduce more
successfully, some of the individual’s offspring will inherit the favourable
characteristics and will themselves produce more offspring. As a result, the
characteristics will become more prevalent in that species.
Mutations: accidental changes in the chromosomes of sperm or eggs that join
together and develop into new organisms.
Humans possessed several characteristics that enabled them to compete with other
species. For example, their agile hands enabled them to make and use tools. All of
these characteristics requires a larger brain. Not until late adolescence does the
human brain reach its adult size.
Neoteny: the prolongation of maturation.
, Animals are used in research to make progress in understanding and treating
diseases. There is also research conducted with human participants. Much of what
we currently understand about the brain and behavior is the result of research with
human participants. Similar to animal research, work with human participants is
subject to strict regulation and must be reviewed and approved by a board of
experts and lay people. Informed consent: describes the process in which
researchers must inform any potential participant about the nature of the study, how
data will be collected and stored, and what the anticipated benefits and costs of
participating will be. Neuroethics: devoted to better understanding implications of
and developing best practices in ethics for neuroscience research with human
participants. Neuroscientists concern themselves with all aspects of the nervous
system.
Behavioral neuroscientists study all behavioural phenomena that can be observed in
humans and animals. Neurologists are physicians who diagnose and treat diseases of
the nervous system.
Goldstein & van Hooff CH1: Introduction to cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific
study of the mind. The mind creates and controls mental functions such as
perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking and
reasoning. Cognition: the mental processes, such as perception, attention and
memory, that are what the mind does. The question of how the mind achieves what
it does is what cognitive psychology is about.
1868: Donders’ pioneering experiment: How long does it take to make a decision?
Donders was interested in determining how long it takes for a person to make a
decision. He determined this by measuring reaction time (how long it takes to
respond to a stimulus). He measured simple reaction time by measuring the time it
takes for someone to respond and he measured choice reaction time by measuring
the time it takes for someone to Reaction times in the choice task were longer than
those in the simple task.
This experiment is important because it was one of the first cognitive psychology
experiments and it illustrates that mental responses cannot be measured directly, but
must be inferred from behavior.
1897: Wundt’s psychology laboratory
Wundt founded the first laboratory of scientific psychology. His approach was called
structuralism; our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of
experience which were called sensations.
Analytic introspection (intro=inside, spectare=looking): a technique in which trained
participants described their sensations, feelings and thought processes in response to
stimuli. He wanted to create a ‘’periodic table of the mind’’ with this technique.
Empiricist approach: emphasizing the pivotal role of experiments in gaining
knowledge about the human mind.
1885 Ebbinghaus memory experiment
Ebbinghaus was interested in determining the nature of memory and forgetting.
Savings: savings = original time to learn a list – time to re-learn the list after the delay.
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