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Summary How chidlren develop
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Summary of 29 pages for the course Ontwikkelings- en Onderwijspsychologie at UL
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Hoofdstuk 3The four relations shown in figure 3.1 depict the complex interplay of genetic and environmental
forces in development. (1) The course of children’s development is influenced by the genetic heritage
they receive from their mother and father, with their sex determined solely by their father’s
chromosomal contribution. (2) The relation between children’s genotype and phenotype depends in
part on dominance patterns in the expression of some genes, but most traits of primary interest
behavioral scientists are influenced by multiple genes (polygenic inheritance). (3) as the norm-of-
reaction concept specifies, any given genotype will develop differently in different environments. A
particularly salient part of children’s environment in their parents, including their parents’ own
genetic makeup, which influences how parent behave toward their children. (4) Children’s own
genetic makeup influence how they select and shape their own environment and the experience they
have in it.
The field of behavior genetics is concerned with how development results from the interaction of
genetic and environmental factors. Using the family-study methodology, behavior geneticist compare
the correlations among individuals who vary in the degree if genetic relatedness and in the similarity
of their rearing environments. Heritability estimates indicate the proportion of the variance among
individuals in a given population on a given trait that is attributable to genetic differences among
them. Most behavioral traits that have been measured show substantial heritability; at the same
time, heritability estimates reveal the close partnership of heredity and environment in development
and the fallacy of considering the influence of nature and nurture as independent of one another.
Nature and nurture cooperate in the construction of the human brain. Some important brain
structures include the neurons, which communicate with one another at synapses; the cortex, in
which different functions are localized in different areas; and the cerebral hemispheres, which are
specializes for different kinds of processing. The processes involved in the development of the brain
include neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, followed by the systematic elimination of some synapses
and the preservation of others as a function of experience. Two forms of plasticity contribute to the
development of behavior. As a result of experience-expectant plasticity, the brain is shaped by
experiences that are available to every normal individual in interaction with every normal
environment. Through experience-dependent plasticity, the brain is also structured by and
individual’s idiosyncratic life experiences. Because of the importance of experience in the brain
development, sensitive periods exist during which specific experience must be present for normal
development. Timing is also a crucial factor in the ultimate impact of brain damage.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Nature and nurture.
- The complex interplay of nature and nurture was constant theme of this chapter. In the drama
of development, genotype, phenotype, and environment all play starring roles, and the plot
moves forward as they interact in many obvious and many not-so-obvious ways
- The starting point for development is the genotype- the genes inherited at conception from
one’s parents. Only some of those genes are expressed in the phenotype, one’s observable
characteristics. Whether or nah some genes are expressed at all is a function of dominance
patterns. Gene expression, the switching on and off of genes over time, underlies many aspects
of development.
, - The eventual outcome of a given genotype is always contingent on the environment in which it
develops. Parents and their behavior toward their children are a salient part of the children’s
environment. Parents’ behavior toward their children is influences by their own genotypes.
Similarly, the child’s development is influenced by the aspects of the environment he or she
seeks out and the different responses the child’s characteristics and behavior evoke from other
people.
- The field of behavior genetics is concerned with the joint influence of genetic and environmental
factors on behavior. Through the use of a variety of family-study designs, behavior patterns that
“run in the families”. Many behavior geneticist use heritability estimates to statistically evaluate
the relative contributions of heredity and environment to behavior.
Brain Development
- A burgeoning area of developmental research focuses on the development of the brain- the
most complex structure in the known universe. Neurons are the basic units of the brain’s
informational system. These cells transmit information via electrical signals. Impulses are
transmitted from one neuron to another at synapses.
- The most human part of the human brain is the cortex, because it is involved in a wide variety of
higher mental functions. Different areas of the cortex are specialized for general behavioral
categories. The cortex is divided into two cerebral hemispheres, each of which is specialized for
certain modes of processing, a phenomenon known as cerebral lateralization.
- Brain development involves several processes, beginning with neurogenesis and differentiation
of neurons. In synaptogenesis, an enormous profusion of connections among neurons is
generated, starting prenatally and continuing for the first few years after birth. Through synaptic
pruning, excess connections among neurons are eliminated.
- Experience plays a crucial role in the strengthening or elimination of synapses and hence in the
normal wiring of the brain. The fine-tuning of the brain involves experience-expectant processes,
in which existing synapses are preserved as a function of stimulation that virtually every human
encounters, and experience-dependent processes, in which new connections are formed a
function of learing
- Plasticity refers to the fact that nurture is the partner of nature in the normal development of
the brain. This fact makes it possible in certain circumstances for the brain to rewire itself in
response to damage. It also make the developing brain vulnerable to the absence of stimulation
at sensitive periods in development.
- The ability of the brain to recover from injury depends on the age of the child. Very early
damage, when neurogenesis and synaptogenesis are occurring, can have especially devastating
effects. Damage during the preschool years, when synapse elimination is occurring, is less likely
to have permanent harmful effects.
The body: physical growth and development.
- Humans undergo a particularly prolonged period of physical growth, during which growth is
uneven, proceeding more rapidly early life and in adolescence. Secular trends have been
observed in increases in average height and weight.
- Food preferences begin with innate responses by newborns to basis tastes, but additional
preferences develop as a result of experience. Parents have a large impact on their children’s
ability to successfully regulate their own eating. Problems with the regulation of eating are
evident in the USA, where an epidemic of obesity is clearly related to both environmental and
genetic factors.
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