Class notes
lecture outlines 1-13
- Course
- BIOL 1102
- Institution
- University Of Connecticut
all outlines (lectures 1-13) for exam 1
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Lecture #1Biology: the study of living organisms
Big Bang: origin of universe, ~13-14 billion years ago
How old is the Sun?: 5 billion years (ago)
Where does the Sun get its energy?:Turn hydrogen into helium through nuclear fusion
How old is the Moon?: 4.6-4 billion years (ago)
How did the Moon form?: The “Theia Impact” → mars sized protoplanet slammed into
earth
General characteristics of the moon:
a. No atmosphere or magnetic field
b. Cold
c. Same side always faces Earth
d. Some ice at the poles interior
The Moon’s main influences on the Earth
1. Create the tides
2. Stabilize Earth’s rotation on axis, which stabilizes climate
How old is the Earth?: 4.6 billion years old
General Characteristics of Earth:
a. Hot interior
b. Atmosphere
c. Liquid water, ice, & water vapor
d. Magnetic field
How does the magnetic field protect Earth?: By deflecting charged particles (solarwind)
coming from the sun
Where does the Earth get interior heat?: From radioactive decay of elements in Earth’s
mantle
How much of the Earth’s surface is covered by water?: 75% of Earth’s surface
● Biosphere: parts of Earth inhabited by living organisms
● Latitude: Horizontal lines across Earth’s surface
● Longitude: Vertical lines across Earth’s surface
● Altitude: height of an object above Earth’s surface
● Elevation: the height of something above sea level
● Weather: daily state of the atmosphere, (the combination of temperature,
humidity,precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and wind).
● Climate: typical weather of a location averaged over time
The Distribution of Life on Earth’s is largely determined by:
1. Amount & timing of solar radiation reaching different parts of Earth
2. Air circulation patterns/distribution of precipitation
,Solar radiation: the Earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. This causes parts of the
Earth to lean toward or away from the sun at certain times of the year, which creates
Temperate zone seasons.
Where did Earth’s atmosphere come from?: Gasses released when the Earth’s mantle
was compressed by gravity.
Global Patterns of Atmospheric Circulation: Hot air rises because the hot air moves
more, and is less dense than cooler air. At the equator, air heated by solar radiation
rises high into the atmosphere and flows away from the equator at high altitude. Cool air
flows toward the equator in both hemispheres along the Earth’s surface to replace it.
The exact patterns of wind movement are also affected by the Earth rotating beneath
the atmosphere, which creates a curved pattern of winds across the Earth’s surface
called the Coriolis Effect.
Jet stream: A narrow band of strong, predominantly westerly air currents several
milesabove the earth. Form between air masses of different temperatures. Typically, two
or three jet streams in each hemisphere.
How is Ozone formed?: O2 gas joins with free oxygen (O) in the upper atmosphere to
produce O3 (Ozone).
What does Ozone protect Earth against?: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Ozone Depletion: the primary cause of ozone depletion is the addition of CFC’s to the
atmosphere. These were used as refrigerants and release chlorine atoms into the
atmosphere,which cause the breakdown of ozone (O3) back to O2, and Chlorine
monoxide. Because they have been banned in many places, the ozone problem should
get better
Ocean currents are driven by
1. Winds blowing across the surface of Earth
2. Thermohaline Circulation: deep water circulation. Temperature and salt
differences create density differences. Cold, salty water is dense & sinks.
Upwelling regions: places where nutrient rich deep water is drawn to the surface
Estuaries are highly productive nurseries and feeding habitats for migratory birds, fish,
and other organisms. Here, freshwater and saltwater mix to form brackish water of
intermediate salinity. Includes intertidal marshes, swamps, and rivers.
Examples of Regional and Local Effects on the Biosphere
1. Microclimate: light, water, and temperature can vary on very SMALL spatial
scales
2. Elevation: air temperature drops about 3-5 degrees F for every 1000-meter
increase in elevation
3. Rain Shadow: desert region created because a mountain range blocks
rain-clouds from reaching an area
, 4. Freshwater Salinization Syndrome: when coal is burned, sulfur, nitrogen, and
mercury are released. These react with air and water vapor in the atmosphere to
form sulfuric acid and nitric acid that are picked up by falling rain or snow; this is
Acid Rain. Mercury causes birth defects.
5. Monsoons in Asia: Asisa is so big that heating and cooling of its massive land
surface causes major shifts in wind patterns. Air blows onto land from the ocean
in summer, and reverses directions during Winter. A monsoon climate is marked
by dry winters and wet summers.
6. El Nino Oscillation: (ENSO) Every 2-7 years on an irregular basis, the water
along the western coastline of South America becomes too warm causing fish
and marine mammal populations to crash. ENSO caused by weakening of
East-West trade winds.
Origin of life on Earth (Bacteria, Archaea): 3.5 billion years ago
Origin of oxygen-releasing photosynthesis: 2.5 billion years ago
First land Plants and Animals: 450 million years ago
Origin of Eukaryotic cells: 1.5 billion years ago
Evolution of Mammals: 250 million years ago
Homo sapiens: about 200-300 years ago
Lecture #2 - Science
Science as a noun: from Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
Science is based on research, conducted by scientists working in private research,
governments, and private institutions.
Scientists who obtain funding to do specific research must typically complete a
dissertation and obtain a Doctorate of Philosophy degree, Ph.D. The PhD itself is
training in how to do research. Typical PhD programs in the sciences are 6 years long
and require a public defense of the dissertation and the publication of research results
in peer-reviewed journals. A Master’s Degree in Science (MS) is usually referred to as a
Thesis and usually takes 2 years.
Science as a verb: refers to the process used to acquire knowledge, called the scientific
method.
- Reductionism: reducing a complex system by understanding its individual
working parts
- Inductive reasoning: Inference using specific observations/results to develop a
larger theory.
- Deductive reasoning: Inference by starting from a larger theory to develop
specific testable predictions.
- Descriptive science: science that observes, records and describes
- Hypothesis-driven experimental science: Science that tests hypotheses to
determine if they are falsifiable
, - Basic research: Largely descriptive with less emphasis on practical applications
(e.g., evolutionary biology)
- Applied research: application of existing scientific knowledge for practical
purposes, like technology, inventions (e.g., medicine, engineering)
Experiments and hypothesis testing
A priori knowledge: is independent of observation and experiment. Known beforehand.
Scientific hypothesis: Based on deductive reasoning that proposes a tentative and
falsifiable explanation for some observed phenomenon.
Falsifiable: doesn’t have to be true, can be false. Refutable. This is fundamental to
science.
Empirical: something verified by observation or experiment, rather than by theory alone.
Sometimes referred to as posteriori knowledge because it is known after experiments
conclude.
Data (pl.) (singular=datum): evidence/info that leads you to believe something is real or
true.
Null Hypothesis: often denoted H𝑜 states that there is no significant difference between
treatments you are comparing. The null hypothesis is assumed to be possibly true.
Alternative hypothesis:often denoted Ha or H1 states something is happening, there is a
difference
Variable: any factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured in an experiment.
- Independent variable: the variable you are controlling to see how it affects the
other variables. Usually found on the x-axis of a graph
- dependent variable: the variable you measure to see how it changes with
changes in the independent variable. Usually found on the y-axis of a graph.
Positive control: receives a different treatment than the experimental group, but with a
known effect. Used to determine if unknown variables may have impacted experimental
results
Negative control: samples that DO NOT receive the experimental treatment. I.e., The
Independent variable is set to zero. Expectation is NO effect will be seen.
Placebo: a type of negative control (e.g., sugar pills, saline shots that contain no
medicine)
Replication: repetition of experiments so error and reliability can be measured
Pseudoreplication: when replicates or observations are not statistically random but were
treated that way. Examples include taking multiple observations of the same sample or
when samples are somehow correlated to each other or to another variable that was or
was not measured. (Bad, want to avoid).
Reliability: measures in percentage. 100% occurs when you get the same results every
time.
Validity: measures how well your experiment or metric measured what you intended it to
measure.
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