Kennismaking met onderzoeksmethoden en statistiek (201800022)
Institution
Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
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Dit is een volledige en uitgebreide samenvatting van het boek Custom Research Methods (Universiteit Utrecht) geschreven door Beth Morling, Deborah Carr et al. Alle verplichte literatuur is overzichtelijk samengevat, inclusief een samenvatting van het artikel voor het eindtentamen. De samenvatting i...
Kennismaking met onderzoeksmethoden en statistiek (201800022)
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Kennismaken met Onderzoeksmethoden en Statistiek
Samenvatting van het boek Research Methods van Beth Morling
Gemaakt door Vivianne Streefkerk; Lustrum 2019 – 2020
Inhoudsopgave
Kwalitatief Hoorcollege 2.............................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 1 – Psychology Is a Way of Thinking – page ...............................................................................3
Kwalitatief Hoorcollege 2.............................................................................................................................. 5
Chapter 2 – Sources of Information – page ...........................................................................................5
Experimenteel Hoorcollege 12..................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 14 – Replication, Generalization and the Real World – page ............................................45
Artikel eindtentamen KOM......................................................................................................................... 53
A Students’ Take on Student-staff Partnerships: Experiences and Preferences...............................................53
2
, Kwalitatief Hoorcollege 2
Chapter 1 – Psychology Is a Way of Thinking – page
Research producers, research consumers
Research producers work in research laboratories and make new
discoveries
Research consumers find, read and evaluate the research behind
important findings
o Good consumer of research skills involve being able to evaluate
the evidence behind claims and making better, more informed
decisions by asking the right questions
How scientists approach their work
Scientists are empiricists
o Empiricism: using evidence from the senses or from instruments
assisting the senses as the basis for conclusions
Scientists test theories: the theory-data cycle
o Theory
A set of statements that describes general principles about
how variables relate to one another
o Hypothesis
The specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a
study if the theory is correct
o Data
A set of observations
Data that matches the theory’s
hypotheses strengthen the
researcher’s confidence in the
theory
Data that does not match the
theory’s hypotheses, indicate
that the theory needs to be
revised or the research design
needs to be improved
o Features of good scientific theories
3
, Supported by data
Falsifiable
A theory must lead to hypotheses that, when tested,
could actually fail to support the theory
Parsimonious
Theories are supposed to be simple
o Theories don’t prove anything, at most the data will support a
theory or are consistent with a theory
Scientists evaluate theories based on the weight of the
evidence
Scientists tackle applied and basic problems
o Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind
Researchers conduct research in a real-world context
o Basic research is done to enhance the general body of knowledge
The knowledge gained may be used for applied research
o Translational research is the use of lessons from basic research to
develop and test applications with applied research
A dynamic bridge from basic to applied research
Scientists dig deeper
o Scientists rarely conduct a single investigation and then stop;
research outcomes will lead them to new questions
Scientists make it public: the publication process
o Research is published by writing a paper about it which is
submitted to a scientific journal
Articles are peer-reviewed; the journal editor sends the
submission to three or four experts on the subject who then
tell the journal editor if the research is worth publishing
Peer-review is anonymous so an honest assessment can be
given; how interesting, novel, well done and how clear is
the work? (Continues even after publication of the article)
Scientists talk to the world: from journal to journalism
o Sources in journalism are accessible to the general public and do
not need special education to understand
o Journalists read scientific journals or talk to scientists and turn the
scientific article into a readable news story with interesting facts
o Benefits and risks of journalism coverage
Journalists need to report the important scientific theories
Journalists must describe the research accurately
4
, For accuracy, see/read the original, peer-reviewed article
Kwalitatief Hoorcollege 2
Chapter 2 – Sources of Information – page
The research versus your experience
Experience has no comparison group
o Comparison group enables us to compare what would happen
both with and without the thing we are interested in
Experience is confounded
o Confounds are possible alternative explanations
Research is better than experience
o Research can control confounds
Research is probabilistic
o Research findings are not expected to explain all cases all the time
o Scientific conclusions are based on patterns that emerge only
when researchers set up comparison groups and test many people
The research versus your intuition
Ways that intuition is biased
o Being swayed by a good story
We tend to believe things that make sense, good stories
o Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind
Availability heuristic: things that pop up easily in our mind
tend to guide our thinking; we overestimate the frequency
o Failing to think about what we cannot see
Present/present bias: failure to consider appropriate
comparison groups; we often fail to look for absences
To avoid this, scientists train themselves to ask the question
‘compared to what?’
o Focusing on the evidence we like best
Confirmation bias: the tendency to only look at information
that agrees with what we already believe
o Biased about being biased
Bias blind spot: the belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to
other biases
5
, o To reason empirically also means you must strive to interpret data
you collect in an objective way and guard against common biases
Trusting authorities on the subject
Before taking the advice of authorities, consider the source of their ideas
Not all research is reliable so authorities may be using a poor argument
When authorities base their conclusions on well-conducted research
rather than experience or intuition it may be reasonable to believe them
Finding and reading the research
Consulting scientific sources
o Journal articles: psychology’s most important source
Empirical journal articles report the results of an empirical
research study for the first time, containing details about
the study’s method, the statistical tests used and the results
Review journal articles provide a summary of all published
studies that have been done in one research area
Meta-analysis: combines results of many studies and
gives the effect size of a relationship
o Chapters in edited books
A collection of chapters on a common topic in which each
chapter is written by different authors
o Full-length books
Not very common in psychology
Finding scientific sources
o PsychINFO
Only psychology sources
o Google Scholar
Reading the research
o Components of an empirical journal article
Abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion,
references
o Read with a purpose
What is the argument and what is the supporting evidence?
Read each heading and ask the questions above again
Finding research in less scholarly places
o The retail bookshelf
Look for references in the books
o Wikis as a research source
6
, Not always accurate, references not great
o The popular media (online magazine, news outlet, podcast, blog)
Kwalitatief Hoorcollege 3
Chapter 10 – Ethnography – page
Ethnography
Participant observation
Research method where researcher tries to participate in the lives of the
people being studied, tries to see the world from their perspective
Historical roots
Anthropologists studied people from different cultures
Sociologists studied subcultures within their own culture
o Subculture is a subset of people with beliefs and behaviours that
differ from those of larger cultures
Globalization is the development of worldwide social and economic
relationships
o This means there are not many places on earth still in isolation
Roles of the ethnographer
Complete participant
o Researchers go undercover, keep their identities a secret
o Subject don’t know they’re being studied
o Researcher pretends to be a native
o Ethical issues (participants are being lied to), so it’s prohibited by
the Anthropological Association but permitted by the Sociological
Association
o Danger is going native: researchers forget their true identity
o Reactivity: the presence and actions of the researcher change the
behaviours and beliefs of the research subjects
7
, o Cognitive dissonance: the unpleasant or distressing feeling that
we experience when we hold two discrepant beliefs, or we engage
in a behaviour that violates our beliefs
Participant observer
o Researcher tells some of the people being studied about his real
identity as a researcher
o Researcher participates fully in the social life of the setting
o Informed consent: the freedom to say yes or no to participating in
a research study once all the possible risks and benefits have been
properly explained
o Subjects can choose to stay in or exit the study once they know
they’re being observed
o Researchers presence may change the way people behave, acting
on their best behaviour and hiding their true beliefs to impress
Hawthorne effect: being observed changes subject’s
behaviour
o This effect fades quickly as researchers are fully engaged, subjects
forget about the research and act naturally again
Observer
o Researcher tells people they are being observed but does not take
part in their activities and lives
o Many newspaper reporters take this role
o They gain valuable information but miss the ‘feel’
o Role is mostly taken when the researcher can’t participate
(observing doctors or athletes)
Covert observer
o Researcher observes people who do not know they are being
observed or studied
o Often in public, will later develop into participant observation
o Systematic observation: researcher follows a checklist and
timeline for observing phenomena
Topics that ethnographers study
8
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