A patient reacts to a blood transfusion, what is this an example of? - Answer-
Alloimmunity: when an individual's immune system reacts against antigens on the
tissues of other member of the same species. (pg 276)
/.After ovulation what happens to uterine endometrial cells? - Answer-Estrogen
stimulates the endometrium to grow and thicken for reception of the fertilized ovum
/.After prolonged antibiotic therapy, what bacterium grows in the intestines? - Answer-
"Prolonged treatment with broad spectrum antibiotics can alter the normal intestinal
microbiome, decreasing its protective activity and can lead to an overgrowth of
opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms, such as the yeast Candida Albicans or the
bacteria Clostridium difficile" (pg. 193)
/.After sexual transmission of HIV, a person can be infected yet seronegative for how
long? - Answer-Seronegative = without antibodies; Antibodies can be detected 18-90
days post infection
/.After the initial infection with herpes, why is the virus inaccessible to antibodies? -
Answer-This cell-associated route of viral transmission is known as a mechanism of
immune evasion and used by HSV to move from infected cells to non-infected
neighboring cells to facilitate infection. By this means the virus remains inaccessible to
neutralizing antibodies. (pg 933-934)
/.Bacteria cannot multiply without? - Answer-"Pathogenic microorganisms usually exist
in reservoirs (a natural habitat where the microorganism can multiply), such as the
environment, vertebrate animals or another human who is infected." (pg. 292)
"Stable colonization of bacteria requires adhesion. Many bacteria attach through pili
(fimbriae), surface glycoproteins, or complement-related receptors." (pg. 320)
"For many microorganisms the human body is a hospitable site in which to grow and
flourish because of sufficient nutrients and appropriate conditions of temperature and
humidity." (pg. 290)
/.Can insulin be used to treat hyperkalemia? - Answer-Administration of insulin and
glucose helps facilitate cellular entry of potassium. (p118-119)
/.Cell membranes contain which major chemical components? - Answer-"The main
components of cell membranes are lipids and proteins. The basic structure of cell
membranes is the lipid bilayer..." pg 12
/.Do all cells continue to replicate and divide? - Answer-No. For example, most of the
neurons and skeletal muscle cells are in a terminally differentiated G0 state; with their
,cell cycle control system disassembled, the molecular regulatory switches become
permanently turned off and cell division rarely occurs (p. 37)
/.Do androgens affect lymphocytes? - Answer-Androgens suppress both T- and B-cell
responses (pg. 338)
/.Does estrogen affect lymphocytes? - Answer-Estrogens generally are associated with
a depression of T-cell-dependent immune function and an enhancement of B-cell
functions. (pg. 338)
/.During acidosis how does the body compensate for increase in hydrogen ions? -
Answer-In respiratory acidosis - the increased levels of CO2 stimulate the kidneys to
compensate to retain bicarb (HCO3) to buffer all of the excess hydrogen ions to
normalize the pH
In metabolic acidosis - the lowered pH stimulates the lungs to compensate by
hyperventilation which decreases the levels of CO2 and bicarb
Pg. 125/128
/.During an IgE hypersensitivity reaction, which leukocyte is activated? - Answer-Mast
cells (pg 263-265)
/.During cell injury caused by hypoxia, what happens to osmotic pressure? - Answer-
The increase of intracellular sodium concentration increases osmotic pressure which
draws more water into the cell pg 84
/.During cell injury what is released that is capable of cellular autodigestion? - Answer-
Lysosomes aid in cellular digestion, seen as "trash cans and recycling agents" "as cells
complete their life span and die, lysosomes digest...the debris... Lysosomes involved in
this process of autodigestion are called autolysosomes or autophagomes (pg 7-8).
/.During the response to stress what decreases lymphocytes, eosinophils, macrophages
and prostaglandin? - Answer-Cortisol
/.Graves disease - Answer-Most common form of hyperthyroidism, more commonly in
women. Caused by thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins that stimulate thyroid TSH
receptors, resulting in thyroid hyperplasia and increased synthesis of TH. S/S can
include: diffuse thyroid enlargement, skin disorders, enlargements of extraocular
enlargement, orbital fat accumulation, and pretibial myxedema (swelling of legs and
hands), and exophthalmos (ocular edema caused by autonomic nervous system and by
immune-induced infiltration of extraocular muscles. (pg 726, 760)
/.How are vaccines against viruses made? - Answer-The purpose of vaccines is to
promote active immunity as to reduce the risk of contracting an infection and reduce
morbidity/mortality of infection. Does not last as long as infection-induced immunity, but
immunization protocols are made to produce a large number of memory cells and a
protective secondary immune response. (Page 318-319; power point page 48)
, Attenuated Vaccines: contain live viruses that are weakened. They express enough of
the appropriate antigen and are unable to establish more than a mild and limiting
infection (except in those whose immune systems are deficient or suppressed). They
appear to have better long-term protection compared to purified antigens. Examples:
MMR, Varicella zoster, yellow fever, Polio (oral route only), rotavirus
Recombinant Vaccines: contains purified viral antigens. Examples: hepatitis B, HPV
Inactivated Vaccines: contains a killed virus. Examples: influenza, hepatitis A, polio
(injected - preferred route for vaccination)
/.How do bacteria become resistant to antibiotics? - Answer-"Resistance genes can be
spread within the bacterial community by horizontal gene transfer." (pg. 317)
Genetic information transferred by means of
Transformation - uptake of short DNA fragments from environment
Transduction - transfer of DNA by means of viruses that infect bacteria
Conjugation - transfer of DNA through pili connecting bacteria (pg. 317)
"Enzymatic inactivation of antibiotics in one of the most common forms of resistance."
(pg. 317) [i.e. -lactamase, aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes (AMEs)]
Multi-drug resistance transporters (MDRs) are another major form of antibiotic
resistance
"...family of transmembrane proteins that are designed to protect the cell by diminishing
the rate of intracellular accumulation of antimicrobials by preventing entrance or, more
commonly, increasing active efflux of the antibiotic." (pg. 318)
MRSA produces a -lactamase and and also carries an extra-chromosomal gene mecA
for resistance to methicillin. MRSA expresses 4 different classes of MDRs. (pg. 318)
/.How do vaccinations work to provide protection against certain microorganisms? -
Answer-Vaccines induce active immunologic protection before exposure to the risks of
debilitating or fatal infection. (pg. 318)
Attenuated vaccines contain live viruses that are weakened (i.e., measles, mumps,
rubella, Varicella, yellow fever). (pg. 319)
Vaccines to prevent certain bacterial diseases caused by potent bacterial toxins
(Diphtheria, cholera, and tetanus) use toxoids, "purified toxins that have been
chemically detoxified without loss of immunogenicity." (pg. 319)
Other vaccines are made with killed or inactivated viruses or bacterial microorganisms.
(pg. 319)
/.How does alcohol affect the nervous system? - Answer-Alcohol causes CNS
depression. sedation, drowsiness, loss of motor, altered mental status. Can possibly
cause respiratory arrest because of medullary center depression. Pg 68
/.How does epinephrine affect the immune system during stress? - Answer-Injection of
epinephrine into healthy human subjects is associated with a transient increase of the
number of lymphocytes (e.g., T cells and natural killer [NK] cells) in the peripheral blood.
Specifically, the levels of T cytotoxic and especially NK cells increase, whereas little
change occurs in the levels of B lymphocytes (pg. 329).
