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General Psychology (PSYC 290) Unit 5
Personality Theory and Assessment Exam
Notes Athabasca University
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Unit 5: Personality- Theory, Research and Assessment
Defining Personality: Consistency and Distinctiveness
• The concept of personality is used to explain (1) the stability in a person's
behavior over time and across situations (consistency) and (2) the behavioral
differences among people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness)
• Personality: refers to an individual's unique constellation of consistent
behavioral traits.
Personality Traits: Dispositions and Dimensions
• Personality trait: A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a
variety of situations.
o Adjectives such as honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, suspicious,
anxious, excitable, domineering and friendly describe dispositions that
represent personality traits.
o Most approaches to personality assume that some traits are more basic
than others.
o According to this notion, a small number of fundamental traits determine
other, more superficial traits.
• Raymond Cattell: used statistical procedure of factor analysis to reduce a huge
list of personality traits compiled by Gordon Allport to just 16 basic dimensions of
personality.
• Factor analysis: in factor analysis, correlations among many variables are
analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables.
o If the measurements of a number of variables (in this case, personality
traits) correlate highly with one another, the assumption is that a single
factor is influencing all of them.
o It is used to identify these hidden factors.
o In factor analysis of personality traits, these hidden factors are viewed as
very basic, higher-order traits that determine less basic, more specific
traits.
o Based on factor analytic work, Cattell concluded that an individual's
personality can be described completely by measuring just 16 traits.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits
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• Based on factor analyses, most personality traits are derived from just 5 higher-
order traits that have come to be known as the "big five:"
o (1) Extraversion: People who score high in extraversion are characterized
as outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive and gregarious. They also
have a more positive outlook on life and are motivated to pursue social
contact, intimacy, and interdependence
o (2) Neuroticism: People who score high in neuroticism tend to be anxious,
hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable. They also tend to exhibit
more impulsiveness and emotional instability than others.
o (3) Openness to experience: Openness is associated with curiosity,
flexibility, imaginativeness, intellectual pursuits, interests in new ideas, and
unconventional attitudes. People who are high in openness also tend to be
tolerant of ambiguity.
o (4) Agreeableness: Those who score high in agreeableness tend to be
sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward.
Agreeableness is also correlated with empathy and helping behavior.
▪ Negatively associated with income, especially among men.
o (5) Conscientiousness: Conscientious people tend to be diligent, well-
organized, punctual, and dependable. Conscientiousness is associated with
strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate oneself effectively.
▪ Higher grades correlate with higher conscientiousness.
• Correlations have been found between the big 5 traits and quite a variety of
important life outcomes.
o Extraversion and conscientiousness are positive predictors of occupational
attainment, whereas neuroticism is a negative predictor.
o The likelihood of divorce can also be predicted by personality traits
because neuroticism elevates the probability of divorce, whereas
agreeableness and conscientiousness reduce it.
o Neuroticism is associated with an elevated prevalence of physical and
mental disorders, whereas conscientiousness is correlated with the
experience of less illness and with greater longevity.
• Traditionally, the study of personality has been dominated by "grand theories"
that attempt to explain a great many facets of behavior
o These include the behavioral approach, humanistic approach, and others.
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o According to Delroy Paulhus, the Dark Triad refers to a specific
combination of 3 traits leading to negative, antisocial behavioral
tendencies.
▪ It consists of 3 separates but intercorrelated
traits; machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism
▪ According to Paulhus, the 3 traits characterize someone who has a
"socially malevolent character with behavioral tendencies toward self-
promotion, emotional coldness, duplicity, and aggressiveness.
▪ Someone who scores high on psychopathy is someone who would
be referred as a psychopath- someone who feels little empathy, who
likes to control and hurt others, who is impulsive, and who often lives
a parasitic lifestyle.
▪ Narcissism: refers to a tendency to focus almost exclusively on the
self and one's image, and to maintain an inflated view of the self and
demand attention.
▪ Machiavellianism: someone who enjoys and is good at manipulating
others.
o Traits forming the Dark Triad represent the dark side to human personality.
▪ Individuals displaying the personality type exhibit vengeful
attitudes and show a tendency to engage in antisocial activities that
harm others, such as exploring others sexually in short-term
relationships, showing no empathy for the suffering of their victims,
and often enjoy the physical/ emotional abuse they cause others.
o Paulhus recently added in a 4th trait, sadism- makes the Dark Tetrad.
o Sadism adds an additional type of negativity to the description of an evil
personality- it involves an appetite for cruelty.
Personality Theories
• Divided into 4 broad groups that each share certain assumptions, emphases, and
interests
• (1) Psychodynamic perspectives
• (2) Behavioral perspectives
• (3) Humanistic perspectives
• (4) Biological perspectives
