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Class notes Human Anatomy
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- Human Anatomy
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- Cni College
anatomy finals study guide
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Study Topics Final Bio 100 –Define and describe the following;
1.) (ch 1) Levels of organization: Anatomical structures are arranged in a
series of interacting levels of organization ranging from the
chemical/molecular level, through cell/tissue levels, to the organ/organ
system/organism levels. (See Figures 1.3 and 1.4.)
I.) Chemical/Molecular-
-Over a dozen different elements in the body
-Four of them make up 99 percent of the body
-Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, and Nitrogen
-Major classes of compounds
•Water (66%)
• Proteins (20%)
• Lipids (10%)
• Carbohydrates (3%)
II.) Cellular Level -The smallest living unit in the body; consist of organales
III.) Tissue Level - Many cells and some surrounding material
a.) epithelial, muscular, neural, and connective tissue
IV.) Organ Level - Combination of tissues
a.) For example: the heart consists of all the above-
mentioned tissues
V.) Organ System Level: Combination of various organs make up a specific system
• For example: the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas make up the digestive system
• The heart and blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system
• Humans are composed of 11 organ systems
2.) (Ch 5) Functions of bone marrow; The medullary cavity contains bone marrow, a loose connective
tissue that is dominated by either adipocytes (yellow marrow) or a mixture of mature and immature red
and white blood cells and the stem cells that produce them (red marrow). Yellow marrow, often found
in the medullary cavity of the shaft, is an important energy reserve. Extensive areas of red marrow, such
as in the spongy bone of the femur, are important sites of blood cell formation.
3.) Anatomical position, and planes, (ch 1.6)
I.) Anatomical position: positioning of the body when it is standing
upright and facing forward with each arm hanging on either side of
the body, and the palms facing forward, legs parallel with feet flat on
the floor.
II.) Planes:
, a.) The frontal plane/coronal plane, parallels the longitudinal axis of the body. The
frontal plane extends from side to side, divide the body into anterior & posterior section
 b.) The sagittal plane also parallels the longitudinal axis of the body. The sagittal plane
extends from anterior to posterior, dividing the body into left and right sections.
c.) Midsagittal section/median sagittal-A section passing along the midline that divides the
body into roughly equal left and right halves or a. A section that runs parallel to the
midsagittal line is a parasagittal section.
d.) The transverse plane, or horizontal or cross-sectional plane- lies at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the part of the body being studied. A division along this plane is a
transverse section, or horizontal or cross section.
4.) Body cavities and organs in them. (ch 1.13) Proved protection and
allow organ movement; lining prevents friction. The body can first be divided
into two major cavities
• Posterior cavity (dorsal cavity)
-Cranial cavity
-Spinal cavity
• Anterior cavity (ventral cavity)
-Thoracic cavity
-Abdominal cavity: contains viscera and is separated from the
thoracic cavity via the diaphragm muscle
-Pelvic cavity
• Thoracic cavity
-Pleural cavity
-Pericardial cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
-Abdominal cavity
-Pelvic cavity
-Peritoneal cavity
5.) Functions of plasma membrane (ch 2)
•Lipid bilayer, containing phospholipids, steroids, proteins, and carbs
•Function: Isolates; protects; senses; supports; controls entrance/exit of
material
6.) Cell membrane transport (types of passive and active transports) (ch 2 fig
2.4)
,•Passive Transport-Materials cross the plasma membrane passively
(without using cellular energy) or actively (using cellular
energy)
a.) Diffusion: movement of molecules from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. In diffusion,
molecules move down a concentration gradient until the
gradient is eliminated 
b.) Osmosis: diffusion of water molecules (rather than solutes)
across a selectively permeable membrane. water molecules
diffusing toward an area of lower water concentration are
moving toward an area of higher solute concentration.
• Active Transport-carrier proteins can move specific substances
across the plasma membrane despite an opposing
concentration gradient. Carrier proteins that move one
solute in one direction and another solute in the opposite
direction. 
7.) pseudostratified columnar epithelium (ch.3 fig 3.7)
-Nuclei situated at different levels
• Location Lining; Nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi
• Function; Protection, secretion
8.) Microvilli and their functions (ch3)
• are small, finger-shaped projections of the plasma membrane. They are found in
cells that absorb materials from the extracellular fluid, such as in the small
intestine and kidneys • Microvilli are especially abundant on epithelial surfaces
where absorption and secretion occur, such as in the digestive and
urinary tracts
9.) Hormones- (ch 19) are chemical messengers that stimulate specific cells or tissues into
actions. These chemicals, called hormones (meaning “to excite”), alter the metabolic
activities of many different tissues and organs simultaneously. The hormonal effects may
not be apparent immediately, but they can last for days. This makes the endocrine system
effective in regulating ongoing processes such as growth and development.
10.) Three types of muscles and their features
I.) Skeletal muscle- aka skeletal muscle fibers
• Multinucleated: Nuclei lie just under the
sarcolemma
• Incapable of cell reproduction
• Myosatellite cells can reproduce and therefore
muscle repair is possible
, • Have a striped appearance under the microscope
• Voluntarily moves the skeleton
II.) Smooth muscle-
• Found: Base of hair follicles, in the walls of blood vessels, lining the urinary
bladder, within respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and reproductive tracts
• Is capable of cell reproduction
• Has tapered ends
• Nonstriated
• Involuntary contraction
III.) Cardiac muscle
• Found only associated with the heart
• Each cell has just one nucleus
• Cells connected by intercalated discs
• Pulsating contractions
• Also called striated involuntary muscle
11.) Periosteum- bone surfaces are covered by a periosteum composed of an outer
fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer. The periosteum helps attach a bone to
surrounding tissues and to tendons and ligaments. The cellular layer functions in
bone growth and in repairs after an injury.
12.) Neuroglial cells and their functions-( ch 13.5) glial cells
13.) Normal blood ph (ch 20)
7.35 - 7.45
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