NSG 533 EXAM 1 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS WITH COMPLETE
SOLUTIONS VERIFIED LATEST UPDATE
5 essential components of pathophysiology
1. Etiology
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathogenesis
4. Clinical Manifestations
5. Outcomes
other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease
idiopathic and cryptogenic
define iatrogenic
etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical intervention
define incidence of epidemiology
the new number of cases in a given population in a specific time period
define prevalence of epidemiology
number of cases, both old and new, during a specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death
1. ATP Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease
ATP deletion
what are the two phases of ATP production?
1. Anaerobic (glycolysis)
2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield?
2
,How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield?
36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired?
1. Hypoxia
2.
ischemia
reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion
obstruction --> ischemia --> decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion
pump fails, and b) increased anaerobic glycolysis
explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production
normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most potassium ions are inside the
cell
when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium
freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
where does protein synthesis occur in a cell?
Rough ER with ribosomes on the surface
explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased
ATP production
glycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is decreased
decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis
define free radicals
unstable compounds with an unpaired electron
why are free radicals bad?
they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and drill holes in its membrane
, what are reactive oxygen species?
highly reactive forms of oxygen typically from the mitochondria
why are antioxidants important
protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress
decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals?
1. Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress
Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations
1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
define reperfusion injury
when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues, additional damage can occur resulting
in cell death
proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5)
1. oxidative stress
2. nitrogen-based free radicals
3. increased intracellular calcium
4. inflammation
5. complement activation
explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury
reoxygenation generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane
proteins and phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress?
1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
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