The document titled "Surveying and Cartography" is a comprehensive guide detailing the principles, methods, and instruments involved in surveying and cartography. It serves as an educational resource for understanding the various aspects of these fields. Here's an in-depth description of the docume...
Surveying: Types, Classification, Measurement of Distances - Angles – Determination of areas
– Leveling – Simple problems – Total station – Remote Sensing.
Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field.
Uses of Surveying
To prepare topographical map this shows the hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages towns.
To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other
properties.
To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works, such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals, etc.
To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find one of the best possible
sites for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, and archaeological map.
For setting out of works and transferring details from the map on the ground.
DIVISIONS: Surveying is primarily divided into two types considering the curvature of the earth’s
surface.
Plane Surveying
• The plane surveying is that type of surveying in which earth surface is considered as a plane and
the curvature of the earth is ignored
Geodetic Surveying
• The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. It generally extends over larger area.
Plane surveying Vs Geodetic surveying
Fundamental Principles of Surveying: Two basic principles of surveying are:
Work from whole to a part
• According to the first principle, the whole are is first
divided into a number of divisions by forming well
conditioned triangles.
, • The main survey lines are measured very accurately with precise survey instruments. Then the
remaining sides of triangle are measured. The purpose of this method of working is to control
accumulation of errors. During measurement, if there is any error, then it will not effect the
whole work. But if the reverse process is followed then the minor error in measurement will be
magnified.
To locate a new station by at least two measurements ( linear or angular) from fixed reference points:
According to the second principle the points or stations are located by linear or angular
measurement or by both in surveying. If two control points are established first, then a new station
can be located by two linear or two angular measurements or by one linear and one angular
measurement. Let A and B are control points. A new point C can be established. Following are the
methods of locating point C from such reference points A and B.
• The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative positions of the points can be then
plotted on the sheet to some scale.
a) Taking linear measurements from A and B for C.
b) Taking linear measurement of perpendicular from D to C.
c) Taking one linear measurement from B and one angular measurement as angle ABC.
d) Taking two angular measurements at A and B as angle CAB and angle ABC
e) Taking one angle at B as angle ABC and one linear measurement from A as AC.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
Surveying may be classified on the following basis:
(i) Nature of the survey field
(ii) Object of survey
(iii) Instruments used and
(iv) The methods employed.
I. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
1. Land Survey. It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type of survey may be further
classified as given below:
(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers, lakes, forests and
hills as well as manmade features like roads, railways, towns, villages and canals.
(b) Cadastral Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities, villages, talukas,
districts, states etc. The survey made to mark properties of individuals also comes under this
category.
, (c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water
supply and sewage lines fall under this category.
2. Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Survey conducted to find depth of water at various points in bodies
of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of water at specified points is
known as sounding.
3. Astronomical Survey. Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute
positions of points on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local time is known as
astronomical survey.
II. Classification Based on Object of Survey
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for designing civil
engineering projects like roads, railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals. These surveys
are further sub-divided into:
Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of the scheme.
Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost of the project, and
Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
(b) Military Survey: It is conducted to locate strategic positions for the purpose of army operations.
(c) Mines Survey: Mine surveys include both surface and underground surveys. It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling and other operations associated with mining.
(d) Geological Survey: In this both surface and subsurface surveying are conducted to locate different
minerals and rocks. In addition, geological features of the terrain such as folds and faults are located.
(e) Archeological Survey: It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, forts,
temples, etc.
III. Classification Based on Instruments Used
(i) Chain survey: This is the simplest type of survey in which only linear measurement are made with a
chain or a tape.
(ii) Compass survey: In compass survey angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass.
(iii) Chain and Compass survey: In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a tape and
angular measurements with a compass.
(iv) Plane table survey: It is graphical method of surveying in which field works and plotting both are
done simultaneously.
(v) Theodolite survey: In theodolite survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a theodolite more
precisely than compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain or tape.
(vi) Tacheometric survey: A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to determine
horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.
(vii) Leveling Survey: This type of survey is carried out to determine the vertical distances and relative
heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level
(viii) Photogrammetric Survey: Photogrammetric is a science of taking measurements with the help of
photographs taken by aerial camera from air craft.
(ix) EDM Survey: In this type of survey, all measurements are made with the help of EDM.
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