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TEXES CONTENT
TExES Content Exam with complete solutions Graded A+
Balanced literacy focuses on:
Oral and written language skills in various instructional contexts.
The various instructional contexts in balanced literacy include:
Independent, guided, and whole-group reading.
Phoneme
The smallest co...
Texas PPR Exam (TX Teachers Review) (copy),
TEXES 160 PPR, Texas Examinations of Educator
Standards. PPR EC 12 160, ppr 003 Practioners,
Teachers, Texas, Texas PPR Exam (TX Teachers
Review|Updated 2024\2025
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over
time. Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1. Sensorimotor (birth to
2 years) 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal operational
(11 years to adulthood) Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the
environment. The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed all students
pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.
Schemes
Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize
information to make sense of the environment
Assimilation
Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation
Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. When old ways of dealing with
the environment don't work, a child modifies an existing scheme stimulated by new information or a
new experience
Adaptation
The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or
accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.
Equilibration
The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to
Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new
experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.
Disequilibrium
7 of 124
Disequilibrium
An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new
experiences.
Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage (birth to 2 years) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the
environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop "object permanence" and
progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.
Object Permanence
,The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's
physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so
they can think about them.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage (2 to 7 years) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things
in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the
world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.
Egocentric
Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.
Conservation
The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other
properties.
Centration
Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.
Reversibility
The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.
Class Inclusion
The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among
subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage (7 to 11 years) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for
logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use the skills only in dealing with familiar
situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them
to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by
egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.
Inferred Reality
The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they
see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational
stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.
Seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, volume, etc.
Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression such as from smallest to largest or shortest
or tallest.
Transivity
A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and
compare objects. Transitivity is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the basis of
knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object. (If a>b and b>c, then a>c)
,Inversion
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (+X is reversed by -X)
Reciprocity
A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. (MM)
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key
ideas. He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture
and the sign systems that represent ideas. These systems include symbols used to think, solve
problems, and communicate. Vygotsky's theory highlights the socio-cultural nature of learning.
Self-regulation
According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the
help of others. Learning is a social process and learning occurs when self-regulation is achieved.
Sign Systems
Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.
Private Speech
Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions; an important consideration in
Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development
Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of
proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Students
cannot perform tasks alone within the zone of proximal development. Activities designed within this
zone are guided activities.
Scaffolding
Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement.
Scaffolding allows a student to make a learning connection and become independent as a learner.
Cooperative Learning
Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and
providing models of slightly advanced thinking.
Developmentally Appropriate Education
Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned
according their chronological age or grade level.
Psychosocial Theory
A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.
, Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages
of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Part of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development addresses children's moral reasoning. Piaget
proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems
deepens. 1. Heteronomous Morality (based on rules and consequences) 2. Autonomous Morality
(based on mutual respect and recognition)
Heteronomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are
unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.
Autonomous Morality
According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that
rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning: I.
Preconventional Level Stage 1 Punishment and Obedience Orientation Stage 2 Instrumental Realist
Orientation II. Conventional Level Stage 3 "Good boy-Good girl" Orientation Stage 4 "Law and Order"
Orientation III. Postconventional Level Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Stage 6 Universal Ethical
Principle Orientation
Preconventional Level of Morality
Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their
own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.
Conventional Level of Morality
Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in
consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A
measure of prestige within a social group.
Ethnicity
A culture, history, and sense of identity shared by a group of people; a way of life. A shared cultural
heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.
Bilingual Education
Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in
the native language as well as English. The four types of programs include: language immersion;
transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
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