1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885 Essay Plans
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This document covers in-depth, long and detailed essay plans for the 1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885 AQA history A - Level course
1783-1812
‘The reforms in finance, trade and administration 1783 – 1812 were
remarkably successful in strengthening Britain.’ Assess the validity
of this view.
Introduction
Valid – resulted in huge decrease of national debt between 1783 and 1793, took away some
parliamentary power from British aristocracy and gave this power to more capable working class
– finally rebuilt British trade and economy after American War
Failures of reforms limited the ‘remarkability’ of the success
Britain was in a bad state following the loss of the American War of Independence:
- 1783 – fiscal deficit of £10.8m.
- National debt had increased by 91% (close to national bankruptcy).
- Smuggling a huge trade (e.g. 4m tons of tea smuggled illegally every year)
- Ministerial instability.
Reforms in Finance were successful
o New taxes decreased fiscal deficit and national debt
o Managed to restore confidence in American War – when he came into office National
industry and commercial production had fallen in 1770s, exports declined by 12% and
national debt increased by 91% between 1775 and 1784, government stocks decreased by
17% during 1783- government deficit was £11milion on annual income of £23.5million
o Aimed to increase confidence by increasing government revenue- maintain surplus off taxes
rather than borrowing – meant that £1million surplus could be paid out annually to reduce
national debt, achieving regular surpluses causing confidence in public finances +
stimulating climate of investment and aiding huge expansion in overseas trade – successful
in doubling value of British exports between 1783 and 1793- brought National debt to
£243m by 1793
o Larger investment – commissioners received £8m between 1793 and 1793- invested and
reduced debt by over £10m
o Reform on taxes- found new items to tax – ensuring burden fell on property owners rather
than lower class- indirect taxes
Taxes on horses used for pleasure, hair powder, women’s ribbons, window
taxes were modified so large properties paid more
o Aided Britain’s struggle against smuggling of goods
Previously 1/5 imports came into country illegally in 1783 – reducing levels
of tax meant Pitt ensured illegal trade was less profitable
Tea tax reduced from 119% to 25% through Commutation Act 1784
Food and raw material imports rose from £13m to £27m between
1783 and 1793
Reforms in finance were unsuccessful
o Indirect taxes failed – 1784 requirement for bleachers, printers and dyers to pay £2 a year
for licenses to trade – abandoned due to opposition, projected tax on coals and taxes on
shops introduced in 1785 only lasting till 1789
o Sinking fund - didn’t work in many situations as many finance ministers raided it when they
needed short term funds, as seen when they raided it after the American war raged in
1775- National Debt to rise from £243million to £359million between 1793 and 1797.
o 1780s it was already strengthening and stronger and manufactured goods at the start of the
industrial revolution already was making up 80% of the value of exports.
, Altogether – there were reforms – 1784 Commutation Act cut the duty on tea from 119% to 25%
and reduced – amount passing through customs doubled by 1788, Taxes on luxuries increased,
Between 1783 and 1792: Added £5m to revenue, Treasury income 47% higher, Fiscal deficit of
£10.8m to surplus of £1.7m, Sinking fund of 1786 reduced national debt – £10.25m of stock
acquired (idea borrowed from Walpole).
o But – Sinking fund was a disaster when war started again with France in 1793 – huge
expenditure increase, Fiscal deficit was bound to improve once excessive expenditure due
to war had stopped.
o Overall – national revival probably more due to circumstance than Pitt
Administrative reforms successful
o Pitt's Administrative reforms to "cut- out waste" - consistently promoted those who could
help him run the governmental and administrative machine with maximum efficiency and
minimum cost rather than those who were only in control through patronage
o Promote men of proven capability meant that Pitt had essentially made a professional civil
service with employees being qualified for their jobs rather than having them through
patronage, ultimately taking away or reducing the influence of the British aristocracy.
o Reorganisation of government, previously filled with corrupt ministers who enriched
themselves through public funds via acceptance of profitable sinecure offices which were
essentially positions with salary handed out to MPs in order to gain their support -
abolished many sinecure offices, exemplified by the refusal of lucrative sinecure of
Clerkship of the Pell’s worth £3000 a year.
o 1785- Treasury given greater control over auditing public accounts costing 1/3 rd of the
previous system – showing once again the way in which administrative reforms allowed
Britain to maximise efficiency – keeping costs low and benefitting more people
o Consolidated fund at the BoE- revenue received from taxes would be put here to pay
governmental payments – simplifying collection procedures
Administration unsuccessful
o Many of his reforms were inefficient and unsustainable
o Pitt's India Act of 1784 clipped the East India Company's control over India - meant that the
British government could exercise real authority in India, however while the board could
issue directives to the company, trading company had substantial powers over territory
o Meant that the British remained not in complete control over India, even though India was
vital to British trade and the empire.
o Furthermore, while the closure of the sinecure offices were hugely important in the
strengthening of Britain, the costs of doing so were high, exemplified through the dismissal
of Lords Mountstuart and Sondes of the Treasury in 1785, who, as compensation, went on
to receive £7000 a year each from the government.
Reforms:28 sinecures abolished by 1792 to reduce power of royal prerogative. Salaries
introduced instead, Government departments were reorganised to improve efficiency (e.g. more
staff in Customs and Excise to stop smuggling), Reorganised the armed forces – between 1784-
90, increased the size of the Navy from 15,000-18,000 men and built 33 new ships (lesson from
loss of America was need for efficient military).
BUT Pitt failed to introduce his quite radical Parliamentary reform Bill in 1785, Patronage powers
were only slightly reduced – King still had great power, 119 new peers created during Pitt’s
tenure (contradictory aim).
, All reform was due to Pitt, not circumstance. However, they were relatively minor successes as
the King still had great power and Pitt failed to introduce any Parliamentary reform, so not a
National Revival.
Trade reforms successful
o Maintained pre-war trade levels with America, while also looking for new markets
o Pitt's thought free-market trade system would boost the economy through free exchange of
commodities between nations without imposing duties or tariffs – didn’t want trade wars
that caused tariff barriers against entry of each other's goods
o Reduced heavy customs duties, and setting up a Board of Trade in order to increase the
volume of legitimate trade injecting money into the British economy, although in short term
the overall income from tax was reduced
o Trade expansion within Europe made good the loss of American colonies and ensured
Britain wouldn’t be left behind while European nations sought commercial arrangements.
o Britain held trade negotiations in France, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Prussia, Holland, Poland
and the 2 Sicily’s. Pitt's low prioritisation of foreign affairs and diplomacy in comparison to
domestic matters and trade meant that by 1791 Britain had virtually recovered from its
defeat in the American War, and was much richer and confident in comparison to 1783.
Trade reforms unsuccessful
o Largest successes were only short term- shown by the Eden Treaty, with France in 1786,
which caused 10-15%, tariff reductions on goods such as textiles, hardware and cutlery, and
also giving subjects of France and Britain free access to each other's country's without
passports and tax, along with free trade and navigation between the nations respective
colonies, meant that Britain began to do more business with France, rather than other
countries, exemplified by British people beginning to switch from drinking Portuguese wine
to French wine which was now allowed into Britain at the same low rate.
o Outbreak of war with France in 1793, along with the French Revolutionary wars meant that
the treaty was destroyed. While, for 7 years the treaty provided huge strength to both the
British and French economy, the benefits were short lived, and as a result we can debate
that the reforms in trade were to a small extent, limited.
Reforms - Trade negotiations with 8 European States, 1786 Eden Treaty with France vastly
increased trade, Free ports agreement made with USA in 1787
o Between 1783-92: Value of British trade to Europe almost doubled, trade deficit of £2.5m to
surplus of £2m, Smuggling greatly reduced (linked to finance and administration reforms).
But Trade had been poor due to Britain’s involvement in 4 wars between 1739-83, so bound to
improve.
'The development of the cotton industry transformed
the British economy in the years 1783 to 1812.' Explain why you
agree or disagree with this view.
Intro
Can be argued there was more continuity than change in British economy and cotton
industry during time period + industries such as agriculture, inventions, coal mining equally
impactful on the economy
Para 1
Innovations in the cotton industry – rise of demand in Cotton – traditional textile industries
previously used linen and wool – cotton lighter, easier to wash- but cost of manufacturing
1lb was equivalent to 1 week’s wages for unskilled manual labourer
o Textile industry used 6.7m lbs of Cotton in 1780 compared to 76m lbs of wool
o In 1783- British Cotton industry worth 600,000 – increased to 10,500,000 by 1805
Rise in demand
, Innovations in efficient social organisation increasing productivity- previous liberty and
independence transformed to new discipline – factorisation and urbanisation
o Growth in number of directly powered factories from 1 in 1785 to 10,000 in 1812
o 6am cacophony – 1000s of workers hurrying to factory gates after bells sounded
Impact on trade and exports – rise of Britain and global power – exports of cotton rose
between 1783 and 1812- £766,000 (6% of total exports), to £17,000,000 (42.2%) – increase
from 6,766,613lbs (1780) to 56,010,732lbs (1800) –0% of GNP (1780) to 8% (1812)
Value of cotton exports grew rapidly – Egypt and India wanted cheap cotton – cheaper to
import and better quality than Indian cotton
Output of cotton industry needed to be exponentially increased to meet excess demand –
population of 22,481 in Manchester in 1783 rose to 79,459 by 1811
o Introduction of large factory mills – 2 in 1790 to 66 in 1821- Crompton’s mule
machines, jobs created
Para 2
Inconsistent growth – unequal between North and South – caused industrialisation in Northern
urban areas – crippling deindustrialisation in rural areas
o James Watt steam engine 1781 – coal became fuel – Lancashire, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire
and Derbyshire became textile strongholds of country due to English mines being located
near Pennines
Traditional woollen cloth industry in South-West (Norwich) were substituted for factory industry
in Yorkshire – South-West began to deindustrialise- declining population, wages and rising
unemployment
o Worcester population fell from 13,000 in 1779 to 11,000 by 1801
o Norwich – population grew by only 1000people in 50years between 1753 and 1801
Continuity rather than change – innovations in cotton industry made continually not just
between 1783 and 1812
o Refining of textile industry from human powered in 1700s to 85,000 power looms displacing
hand-powered looms – continual change
Outside of cotton and iron engineering, most of industry was not transformed. Factory
production was the exception.
o Birmingham and Black Country small metal trades dominated. Sweating industry was
strong in tailoring. Shoe making continued in workshops and was hardly mechanised.
o Industrial Revolution was limited phenomenon, confined to the NW and NE and most of
industry around the country was not transformed at all 1783-1812.
Para 3
Coal industry had larger impact – cotton production wouldn’t have been able to move to urban
concentrations without it
o Earlier cotton mills relied on water power – had to be situated near water source
o Coal replaced wood as fuel in Iron-smelting- crucial to steam power – rate of production
between 1783 and 1812 doubled from 7m tons to 14m tons
o Transformed Iron industry – pig iron output moving from 28,000 tons a year in 1750s to
180,000 by 1800s- enabled infrastructure like bridges and rail to be constructed along with
machines and steam-engines
1800s- regular maritime routes- London to China and new york to Liverpool- 1838 -
Steel ships were 40% lighter
Clipper ships- London to China would take 3 months- before took 12months
o Iron replaced wood in making of industrial machines 1770 , 1783- Henry Cort invented a
new and improved method to produce wrought iron
o Before 1760- Small local production facilities near water charcoal and limestone - 50% im-
ported from Sweden – inefficient and meant steel was more difficult to produce as iron
wasn’t economically viable
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