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Summary of mandatory literature Social Networks
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Summary of 34 pages for the course Social Networks in Theory and Empirical Research at UU (extensive summary)
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Summary Literature Social Networks UU 2024Week 1
Feld: The Focused Organiza4on of Social Ties
Social organiza4on of friendship 4es. Importance of pa<erns in networks of rela4ons that connect
individuals with each other. Modern society as consis4ng of loosely connected social circles of
rela4onships.
But without concern for the origins in the larger social context. Concentrate a<en4on on those
aspects of the extra-network social structure that systema4cally produce pa<erns in a social network
à origins of the loosely connected social circles.
Relevant aspects of the social environment can be seen as foci around which individuals organize
their social rela4ons (workplaces, hangouts, families etc). As a consequence of interac4on associated
with their joint ac4vi4es, individuals whose ac4vi4es are organized around the same focus will tend
to become interpersonally 4ed and form a cluster.
The sociological process of focusing social networks
Focus theory approach = A social context can be seen as consis4ng of a number of different foci and
individuals, where each individual is related to some foci and not the others. A groups ac4vi4es are
organized by a par4cular focus to the extent that two individuals who share that focus are more likely
to share joint ac4vi4es with each other than two individuals who do not have that focus in common.
Built upon Homan’s social elements of ac4vity, interac4on and sen4ments. Sociological.
Balance theory = sen4ments among individuals tend to become consistent with the rela4ons that the
individuals have to other objects. Psychological.
In order to understand pa<erns that are found in a social network it is necessary to inves4gate;
• The sociological nature of the foci
• The distribu4on of the individual rela4ons to the foci
• The degree to which the foci organize value social interac4on among individuals
Nature of foci: Foci tend to produce pa<erns of 4es, but all 4es do not arise from foci. A rela4onship
between two individuals does not necessarily arise from ac4vi4es that are organized around a focus
à meet by chance or as a result of adjacency along some con4nuum. Foci can be persons, places,
social posi4ons, ac4vi4es and groups. May ac4vely bring people together or passively constrain them
to interact. Similarity brings individuals together in interac4on and sen4ments; but this is not
sufficient to account for the clustered arrangement of 4es. Focus on organiza4on of social context
rather than similari4es of individual characteris4cs.
Varia4ons among foci: For foci where everyone is forced to interact much and oWen, all of the
individuals associated with that focus will be 4ed to each other. For foci that are less constraining on
interac4on, only a slightly higher propor4on of individuals will be 4es than would be 4ed in the
general popula4on.
Developing new foci: Forma4on of social networks and the rela4ons to foci are interdependent. The
more severe restric4ons on 4me, effort, and emo4on, the more individuals will experience pressures
to combine their interac4ons with various members of their network by finding and developing new
foci around which to bring more of them together. More compa4ble foci = more likely that the
individual can find or invent some focus that can organize joint ac4vi4es.
Focused organiza4on and loosely connected clusters
,Simply focused situa4on = mul4ple foci, but each individual is related to a single focus. Interac4ons
and sen4ments tend to be within clusters organized around each focus.
Loose connec4ons between clusters = few alterna4ve paths. Expected wherever a connec4ng focus is
rela4vely small and/or weakly constraining.
Implica4ons of focused organiza4on of social 4es:
• Transi4vity of mutual rela4onships
• Local bridges are extreme form of cri4cally important connec4ons between clusters
• Density of personal networks indicates extent to which individuals are contained within
clusters or are intersec4ons between clusters
Conclusions
Once one understands the focused organiza4on, one can predict that transi4vi4es will occur around
the foci and bridges will be 4es based upon weakly constraining foci or not based upon foci at all.
Focus theory will not be applicable under all circumstances à when there are no foci and where
other processes override the effects of foci.
Drouhot:
Reconsidering Community Liberated; How class and the na4onal context shape personal support
networks (57-77)
Study of decline and revival of community. Major advance in community studies = work of Wellman
on personal support networks. Focus to individuals social 4es à community is doing fine in the form
of geographically dispersed and segmented networks of personal in4mates = community liberated
model. Denies switch from GemeinschaW (solidary, rural) to GesellschaW (impersonal, urban).
Evidence that social networks do not operate in a vacuum but are instead spa4ally embedded.
2 spa4al dimensions of community liberated argument:
• Degree of geographical dispersion of one’s personal support network
• Degree of local social involvement
Educa4onal a<ainment to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of both network geographic
dispersion and local social involvement.
Par4al support for community liberated model à but be<er thought of a gradual phenomenon
enabled by socioeconomic resources embedded in a specific na4onal context
‘Community liberated’ argument:
In between community lost perspec4ve (poten4al breakdown of social solidarity in the anonymous
and transient environment of the industrial city) and community found perspec4ve (4ghtly knit urban
villages). Data shows that respondents received ample amount of support from a diverse array of
in4mates living in other parts of the city or the country. Network density was fairly low and sources of
support rather specialized (situa4ons of emergency vs everyday help) à different strokes from
different folks. Sparsely knit, loosely bounded networks.
Inequality and personal networks
• Network range
Strong posi4ve associa4on between network range and socioeconomic status. Those with
large, segmented, geographically widespread networks are likely to be white, graduated high
school and have above average family income.
• Findings from urban ethnography
, Urban = Local social worlds organized around neighborhoods. Direct outcome of enclave-like,
self-enclosed character of a low-income area where everybody knows each other and
cooperates with each other on a daily basis. Share/ swapping resources. Emphasizes a strong
theore4cal link between limited resources, limited geographical horizon and the
embeddedness of personal networks in the neighborhood.
Studies of suburban middle class show superficiality of neighboring rela4ons and local 4es in
general. Choice mainly based on preference. Ties are not need-based but emerge slowly over
4me through repeated interac4on. Highly sensi4ve to the built environment (street width).
à fits with community liberated model
• Na4onal varia4on
Substan4al varia4on in the spa4al structures of personal networks. Important dispari4es in
network density. Surge of interest in understanding varia4on I network themselves as
influenced by contextual elements such as space and geography or culture and worldview.
Conclusion
Importance of educa4on on influencing social support networks.
Possible mechanisms:
• Spa4al mobility associated with educa4on and university in par4cular à especially strong
effect of being a college graduate on network geographic dispersion.
• Labor mobility, strong link between educa4on and spa4al mobility. Labor markets for more
highly specialized individuals tend to be na4onal rather than regional or local. Lowe
a<achment to place and higher rate of spa4al mobility in more industrialized countries with
more specialized economies.
Poten4al sources of na4onal varia4on:
Explana4on cross-country heterogeneity resides in economic development and composi4onal
differences in labor markets. More agriculture/ industry based countries, less specialized than
service-based countries à localized rather than na4onal labor markets for most individuals.
Service intensive economies tend to have higher standards of living and reduce the need for
immediate and specialized networks of support; making it possible to entertain geographically looser,
locally sparse personal support networks.
Importance of mul4-layered contexts:
…
Community liberated is a ma<er of degree. Not everyone’s support system resembles this model.
Higher levels of educa4on militate toward personal networks being dispersed out of the
neighborhood.
Mar4novic: Changes in immigrants social integra4on during the stay in the host country
Social integra4on = extent to which immigrants engage in social interac4on with na4ves. One of the
aspects of immigrant integra4on next to structural and cultural ones à incorpora4on of immigrants
in the job market and the adop4on of values and customs of the receiving society.
Why social integra4on is important:
• Contact between ethnic groups can improve intergroup rela4ons, thereby decreasing
prejudice and conflict
• Immigrants get access to the social capital of na4ves, which facilitates their economic and
cultural integra4on
Has been examined both in terms of strong and weak 4es. Marriage is strongest possible 4e between
members of two ethnic groups à indicator of successful integra4on. Weaker 4es are friendship and
casual contacts.
, Social integra4on as a dynamic phenomenon, interac4on tends to change over 4me à study the
process and not only the level of integra4on at a certain moment.
Entry differences = differences in social integra4on that become visible shortly aWer arrival
Longitudinal differences = differences that develop or persist over 4me
Focus on contact in leisure 4me, using weak 4es à represent a more common form of social
interac4on.
Theory about preferences, opportuni4es and third par4es
• Preferences
People make choices in accordance with their preferences. People prefer to marry individuals
who are culturally similar, since such similarity facilitates mutual understanding. Cultural and
economically a<rac4ve (well-being and status).
• Opportuni4es
Preferred choices have to be made within the structural constraints of the society. The
opportunity to meet coethnics can be seen as one of the main constraints. Depends on the
size of the ethnic group and the degree of segrega4on. Bigger, more segregated groups =
greater opportunity for mee4ng coethnics. Few coethnics available = structurally condi4oned
to interact with na4ves (even if preference is coethnics).
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