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Summary of mandatory articles - Essentials of Media Psychology
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Summary of articles for Essentials or Media Psychology (EMP) from the Master Communication Science at VU University Amsterdam.
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Aantekeningen readingsCollege 1: Okdie et al., (2014) Missed Programs (You Can’t TiVo This One):
Why Psychologists Should Study Media
Definition of media psychology: Media psychology is the scientific study of the
behavior and cognitive processes involved in the selection, uses, interpretation,
and effects of mediated communication.
The term mediated indicates any communication outside of face-to-face
interaction that requires mediated transmission (i.e., passing through a media
channel).
• Mediated channel: television program, producers communicate a message
to a mass audience
• Mediated communication: books, e-mail, text message, social media
websites
“over-whelmed consumer” = media user in the 21st-century because of the many
choices nowadays.
New media are facilitating a shift from being passive consumers to being active
producers of media.
Two analyses:
- content analysis of major general psychological journals à only 1,6% of
articles focused on media from 2003 tot 2012.
- analysis of graduate and undergraduate courses at the top 50 psychology
in the US à of 52 programs only 16 offered a media psychology course.
- Little attention to media psychology.
The little that does focus on media psychology focuses on popular media topics
such as educational television, video game violence and aggression. They don’t
focus on the unique attributes of media and how those attributes influence
human cognition and behavior.
Little emphasis is placed on the psychological processes occurring while using
media or the impact of unique characteristics of media.
In the current media psychology research they focus on the psychological
outcomes of media use and less on the attributes of media.
CMC = computer-mediated communication. Any communication between
individuals that occurs via computer (e-mail, instant messaging). Also within
these studies, examining the psychological end behavioral effects of CMC weren’t
researched.
,A conceptual framework: 5 attributes in which media can vary
• Fidelity: refers to the degree that a medium is detailed, complete and
accurate in its reproduction of the information being transmitted.
Example: Blue-ray have higher fidelity than a DVD because they have
fewer distortions and with more detail. In case of transmitting a visual
scene a movie has higher fidelity than a book. The fidelity can vary
between en within a medium. Fidelity may influence persuasion through
several mechanisms (a message with compelling arguments increases
persuasion). High fidelity messages may be more persuasive as they
provide a greater sense of actual engagement with the behaviors
portrayed in the message.
• Privacy: is the ability of individuals to hide personal information
regarding identity and characteristics from others. An individual may
choose to share a picture with others. Thus, media providing individuals
the ability to control information. Privacy is a large function of the type of
media individuals chooses to use. Media differ in the level of individual
privacy. With some media you need the share a lot of information.
- Deindividuation: is a psychological state characterized by low self-
awareness leading to increased focus group rather than personal norms
and standards of behavior. High level of privacy in media = foster
(bevorderen) deindividuation, leading to more extreme behavior.
- Self-presentation: the way we create images of ourselves to impress
others. Consumers using media in high privacy may be more likely to
engage in self-presentation tactics to increase liking or status and power.
• Channel: refers to the different senses that are used to receive or convey
a message via the media. Some media isolate channel properties (e.g.,
textbased e-mail communication typically uses only the visual channel),
whereas other media use multiple channels (e.g., online gaming includes
auditory, visual, and motor channels).
- Persuasion: easily understandable messages are more persuasive in
communication modalities where source cues (details about the sender of
the message, such as expertise or likability) are most salient. Conversely,
difficult-to-comprehend messages are more persuasive in written
communication, where source cues are minimized. Other work indicates
that when the communicator is more salient, characteristics of the source
such as expertise or attractiveness have a greater effect on persuasion in
face-to-face, audio, and audiovisual channels of communication relative to
written communications.
- Self-Awareness: the state of self-awareness recipients are in while
receiving information through a channel. Research indicates that social
cues such as gender have a direct influence on message reception when
individuals communicate face to face but not when communicating via
CMC.
- Cross-channel additivity: using different channels and taking advantage of
the unique properties of each media channel. Demonstrating the
strengths of different media channels. For example: using web-based
material about mental health interventions conducted in school. A series
of animated stories highlight the intervention’s main points so that face-
, to-face time can be used to apply them to improve behavior. This together
while maintaining the importance of face-to-face time with counselors.
• Interactivity: Interactivity is the extent to which media afford individuals
the ability to control or elicit responses from content provided through
media, others using media, and the individual medium itself.
- Directionality: Traditionally, they thought everyone interpreted a media
story the same way. However, people interpret messages different ways.
- Control: users of new media also have control over the messages.
Individuals are also motivated to generate content. They have control
over their online experience. An important caveat is that even the most
interactive media require motivation to engage interactively. Thus,
potential effects of control are likely to occur only if individuals are
motivated to take advantage of that interactivity.
• Content: is any data transmitted via media. Content also differs if there is
interactivity or not. Different effect of content organization. Violent video
games organized using a narrative structure have greater effects on
subsequent aggression than do nonlinear free-flow games.
Linearly content: a book, you start at the beginning and finish at the end.
Unlinearly content: the internet, individuals use hyperlinks to jump from
web to web. This organizational structure affects many psychological
processes.
They were chosen for their psychological relevance and usefulness in
distinguishing media.
Applying the attributes framework on MOOGs = massive open online courses.
Is an environment where academic course material can be delivered to large
numbers of students. Interactivity and fidelity are likely to affect the learning
process. It is different than face-to-face but you can also include interactivity
online, by applying instant messaging for example. Low fidelity decreases
student engagement. Thus, increase quality of the original recording of increase
one’s internet speed should result in greater learning and engagement with the
course material.
The framework allows us to identify potential challenges to suggest steps that
can be taken to address those shortcomings.
Conclusion
minimal existing research on media relies on unidirectional and static theories
involving more popular applied media topics (e.g., TV and video game violence);
such research reaches a smaller audience when published in specialty journals
such as the new American Psychological Association journal Psychology of
Popular Media Culture. The hope to explore different media that lead to
predictable patterns of behavior.
, College 2 Lang (2011) The limited capacity model of motivated mediated
message processing.
LC4MP (=limited capacity model of mediated message processing) is a data
driven model developed to investigate the real-time processing of mediated
messages. à human information processing.
It seeks to reveal the underlying mechanisms of message processing that can be
used to understand what people attend to and take away from a message. This
knowledge can then be used to better understand subsequent effects of
messages, types of messages, and media.
Information processing is defined as the simultaneous, continuous, over-time
operation of at least (but not necessarily only) three basic subprocesses—
encoding, storage, and retrieval. Information is thoroughly processed when it has
been encoded, has been stored, and can be retrieved.
- Encoding = process of selecting information from the environment and
creating a mental representation of that information. This process is
continuous because humans are constantly scanning en encoding
information. It is nonveridical because mental representations are not
exact representations of the stimulus. It is idiosyncratic (eigenaardig)
because both the mental representations and the selection of which
information to encode are depending on characteristics of environment,
stimulus and previous experiences of the receiver. That’s why two
receivers could encode the same information differently.
- Storage = is the process of creating a long- term representation of the
encoded information. All incoming information is initially linked together,
along with previously known information that has been activated in order
to understand the incoming stimulus.
- Retrieval = is the process by which previously stored information is
activated. People are constantly retrieving old information in order to
understand, contextualize, think about, and respond to incoming
information.
This process is not strictly linear, because not all information is new for example.
Controlled resource allocation = Users intentionally allocate resources when
they try to pay attention, remember, relax, or engage with media in the pursuit of
some goal. (long process)
Automatic allocation = mechanisms are not under control of the media user.
Resources are located automatically. One of the mechanisms through which
resources are allocated automatically is the orienting response. This response is
elicited (uitgelokt) by two stimuli: environment and learned relevant or
important information. The existence of the orienting response allows humans to
automatically, without conscious effort or thought, scan the environment for new
or relevant information. (short process)
• Stimuli that are motivationally relevant also elicit automatic resource
allocation.
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