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American exceptionalismBest way to conceptualise?
Origin:
• In 1840, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote in his book Democracy in America that “the
position of the Americans is quite exceptional, and it may be believed that no
democratic people will ever be placed in a similar one” (de Tocqueville 36-37)
• Roots much earlier though – Puritans speaking of America as a new nation that would
function as an exemplar to the world
• Puritan John Winthrop in 17th century: City upon a Hill - we shall be made a story
and a byword through the world
o Biblical promised land
thesis: as exemption, as an idea (or belief in exemption) and a real thing
• As an idea – focus on this reveals what ideas influence grand strategy
American exceptionalism as exemption; as a pattern of behaviour
• Ignatieff (2005): identifies three main types of exceptionalism: exemptionalism
(supporting treaties as long as Americans are exempt from them); double standards
(criticizing "others for not heeding the findings of international human rights bodies,
but ignoring what these bodies say of the United States); and legal isolationism (the
tendency of American judges to ignore other jurisdictions).
Example: human rights. Moravcsik (2005)
• ‘U.S. aversion to formal acceptance and enforcement of international human rights
norms—poses a paradox. The paradox lies in the curious tension between the
consistent rejection of the application of international norms, on the one hand, and the
venerable U.S. tradition of support for human rights’
• Defence of human rights:
o Support for French Revolution
o Haiti 1990s
o Kosovo 1990s
• Yet failures and hypocrisies – annexation and imperialism – not new
o Own imperialism despite criticism of seeking monsters abroad
§ Philippines: annexed by the US from Spain as part of the Treaty of
Paris 1898, was rationalised in civilisational terms (duty to rescue from
barbarism) (Herring) – when war in the philippines it was narrated in
racial terms … and strong narrative that if the US left then they might
be incapable of self-government
§ Was though, a disillusionment with empire – short lived boost of
confidence at the end of the 19th century. Anti-imperialist sentiment
challenged the narrative of exceptionalism that justified occupation of
Philippines e.g. Carnegie offers 20m to give them independence
, (Herring), cruticlaly this was on basis of principle bc thought US had
no right vs. British critics of empire which largely said no benefit for
GB at same time (e.g. JA Hobson underconsumption thesis)
§ BUT… Gaddis says Philippines an anomaly – Gaddis argues there
was no formal desire to construct an empire… even if this is true,
individual acts of imperialism were at odds with broader narratives and
rhetorically justified in a manner that drew upon themes of US
exception as exemption….
§ Expansionism guided by exceptionalism - Americans believed was
exempt from being the same as European imperialism bc “ideals are
pure” (67) - Empire for Liberty - Restad
• Own failures and hypocrisies: noncompliance, nonratification in human rights
multilateralism
o Has ratified some key UN covenants but ‘It stands out, however, for not
ratifying international instruments on discrimination against women
(CEDAW), rights of the child, socioeconomic rights, and migrant workers, as
well as the relevant regional document, the American Convention of Human
Rights. This level of rejection is unique. The Convention on the Rights of the
Child, for example, has been ratified by every UN member except the United
States and nearly stateless Somalia.’ (Moravcsik)
o Non-ratification of Kyoto yet pursuit of climate regimes: one applied to rest
o
• Own failures and hypocrisies: refuses to accept the jurisdiction of international courts
o
Why able to: exceptional power
• Bosco: material power lends institutional power e.g. ICC
Why: domestic partisan opposition to translating international norms at home (Moravcsik)
• Paradox of rights culture and aversion / skepticism of global norms – think US ones
better and that US should be exempt
• Sovereignty concerns
Alternative: as mission / unique role (Restad)
• Founding itself was missionary. Restad (2012) argues that shouldn’t understand
exceptionalism as missionary/isolationism because fused at outset
o US was not isolationist at the start
• Based in universalism; attractiveness of distinctive political institutions. Spirit of
nationalism
• Americans optimistic, self-confident and thus inertia to actual level of threats; tend to
minimise and have faith in solutions
• Activist foreign policy; Sullivan: exceptionalism is how to reconcile patriotism and
internationalism
o Imperial exceptionalism?
• But… popular opinion modest and impacted by events that affect confidence
, o E.g., 2006 any hubris emanating from exceptionalist role conception had been
tempered (2006 pew)
o E.g., post-Vietnam anti-war sentiment
Example: American exceptionalism in rhetoric at the UN
As exemplar
•
Manifest Destiny
•
As grand strategy
As a real thing [see below]
As geographical advantage
But not that useful because doesn’t imply a course of behaviour even if it can
explain outcomes of state interaction … when reduced to a realist thing faces the same
problems as realist theory in general
As indeterminate
• US popular opinion on exceptionalism doesn’t necessarily imply responsibility
o And at certain points it is different
§ Abdelal et al. 2006 – how identity changes/ identity as a variable
§ How would you know what collective identity is? Abdelal et al. 2006
show six diff ways – discourse analysis shows the intersubjective
context of speech, helps with relational and content; surveys of self-
definitions; content analysis – summaries, not intersubjective;
experiments; agent based modelling etc.
• Favourable geography indeterminate - Impact depends on other ideological
drivers/other notions of exceptionalism as an ideology
Population diff kinds of exceptionalism, doesn’t really itself explain that much as an
overgeneralised notion
• Indeterminate nature is evident in the debate over unilateralism [Thimm 2007]
• There is no need causal relationship b/w any foreign policy and exceptionalism,
therefore.
• Both sides invoke AE to justify arguments
• Gilmore (2015) highlights that messages highlighting primary exceptionalism
messages spur strong responses - but this doesn’t imply any particular foreign policy
thing
• [Thimm]: Moravcsik 2005 identifies four aspects of American identity and political
culture that serve as obstacles to a more multilateral behavior toward international
institutions: the individualistic, anti-socialist orientation; a deep belief in popular
, sovereignty combined with a distrust of central government that could be transferred
to international institutions; a constitutional patriotism; and other forms of
nationalism.
• [Thimm] Yet, Ikenberry sees unique features in the American political heritage that
encourage multilateral behavior (Ikenberry 2003, p.543): “[..] behind these political-
intellectual traditions are deeper aspects of the American political identity that inform
the way the United States seeks to build order in the larger global system. The
enlightenment origin of the American founding has given the United States a political
identity of self- perceived universal significance and scope. The republican
democratic tradition that enshrines the rule of law reflects an enduring American view
that polities – domestic or international – are best organized around rules and
principles of order. America’s tradition of civic nationalism also reinforces this notion
that the rule of law is the source of legitimacy and political inclusion. This tradition
provides a background support for a multilateral foreign policy.”
• Patrick (2002, p.7) tries to reconcile these two positions, claiming that
“exceptionalism pulls in two directions, encouraging both a desire to ‘go it with
others’ and an urge to ‘go it alone.’”
Therefore… is a justificatory discourse that best explains success of mobilisation rather than
what preferences in FP; or mediating factor? but also need to look therefore at marketplace of
ideas…. Pattern of behaviour in justification not in preference for
unilateralism/multilateralism
• Maybe the dichotomy isn’t that useful and the point of exceptionalism is seeing it in
terms of exemption - pursuing exemption in both uni/multi and do both at same time
• Better understood through self-interest/power - but this debate is mediated by
differing beliefs in exceptionalism? I.e. what is best is interpreted in indeterminate
way
Public opinion, as an ideology
• Gallup poll (2010) asked
o whether US has a special responsibility to be the leading nation in world affairs -
found that 66% yes, 31% no
o Because of US history and its constitution, whether the US has a unique
character that makes it the greatest country in the world: Yes have a unique
character 80%, no don’t think so 18%, no opinion 2%.
• Seymour Martin Lipset (1996):
o AMERICA "HAS BEEN EXCEPTIONAL all through its history," proclaims
Seymour Martin Lipset, and the nature of that exceptionalism lies in enduring
American values.
o The US is "qualitatively different" from other nations in that, from the
beginning, it defined itself ideologically.
§ But at the same time. Americans were ‘born equal’ never needing to
launch a revolution to obtain political democracy. The American
ideology has been dominated by a Lockean, individualist outlook
against which neither socialism on the left nor conservatism on the
right could really change. No feudalism, no socialism they never
inherited class discontent.
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