Alle artikelen per college zijn samengevat: 1 Developmental approaches to understanding media effects on individuals, 2 Digital youth chapter 4 – Constructing identity online, 3 Media effect theories: an overview, 4 Body Ritual among the nacirema, 5 Media literacy and the challenge of new informa...
Summary articles youth culture in a digital world.
Articles lecture 1:
1: Developmental approaches to understanding media effects on individuals
There are stories about the violence involving children and teenagers, influenced by media such as
wrestling, videogames, and TV shows. However, these stories about ‘media effects’ oversimplify
complex situations. To understand media effects on children it is necessary to dispel myths regarding
media influences. A more nuanced understanding is necessary. Further in this text we will describe
two general approaches to development – one based on normative developmental theory (the
developmental tasks approach) and the other focused on individual differences among children (the
risk and resilience approach). These models will be used to understand the intersection of media
effects and development.
Seven myths about media effects
1 Media effects are simple and direct
The passage argues that media effects are often subtle and cumulative, not simple or direct.
Advertisements, for example, can influence attitudes and behavior with just a few exposures. The
effect of media happen at a level of which we are not consciously aware of. We are probably failing to
notice the strongest and most powerful media influences.
2 The effects of media violence are severe
While extreme cases make headlines, the passage argues that the impact of media violence is more
pervasive and includes emotional, physiological, cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral effects beyond
extreme acts. While most individuals exposed to media violence do not commit extreme violence,
the impact is more persuasive and includes a ‘culture of disrespect’. So media influences a broad
range of behaviors, emotions and attitudes not just extreme acts. Focusing only on extreme cases
may overlook the broader and more common effects of media.
3 Media effects are obvious
The passage challenges the expectation that media effects should be obvious. But the effects of
violent media are usually indirect, subtle and cumulative (and thus not obvious). Even if people notice
that someone is becoming more aggressive over time they may not infer that the change could be
due partly to watching violent media. Thinking that media effects are obvious we are missing
opportunities to see other less obvious effects.
4 Violent media affect everyone in the same way
The passage dispels the myth that violent media affect everyone uniformly. It introduces four main
effects of consuming violent media: the aggressor effect (increased aggression and violence and more
mean), the victim effect (perceiving the world as scarier and engaging in self-protective behaviors),
the bystander effect (becoming desensitized and less sympathetic to violence), and the appetite
effect (a desire to consume more violent content). These effects are acknowledged to vary among
individuals, with females generally more affected by the victim effect and males more by the
aggressor, bystander, and appetite effects. The passage emphasizes the complexity of predicting
individual responses to media violence and highlights the role of various influences, from family to
societal norms. It underscores that while everyone may be affected in some way, the effects are not
identical for all individuals.
5 Causality means "necessary and sufficient"
The passage challenges the misconception that causality means being both necessary and sufficient.
,It discusses how this oversimplified view has been used to argue against the effects of media
violence. The analogy of pushing a rock down a hill illustrates the complexity of causation,
emphasizing that an action can be a cause even if it is neither necessary nor sufficient. The passage
highlights the multicausal nature of complex issues, such as aggressive behavior, where various
factors interact. It introduces the idea that media violence is one of many contributing factors, acting
as a push that interacts with other forces at work. The passage concludes by stating that, in social
science, the focus is on understanding all the causes for a behavior, not just those that are necessary
or sufficient.
6 Causality means immediacy (onmiddelijkheid, rechtstreeksheid)
This passage challenges the misconception that causality requires immediacy, particularly in the
context of media violence effects. It argues against the belief that effects must be seen in the short
term for exposure to be considered a cause. The example of smoking and lung cancer is used to
illustrate that physical symptoms may only become visible after a long-term disease process. The
passage notes that, despite a decline in violent crime rates, media violence can still be a cause even
without being a necessary and direct cause. Long-term effects are emphasized, drawing parallels with
the gradual impact of salt exposure on cars and proposing that the effects of media violence may take
around 15 years to fully manifest, as suggested by research on the murder rate following the
introduction of television to communities. The passage concludes by cautioning against expecting
immediate or short-term effects and highlights the importance of considering long-term
consequences.
7 Effects must be "big" to be important
This passage addresses the misconception that effects of violent media must be "big" to be
considered important. It discusses the statistical approach often used in such discussions, noting that
the amount of variance in violent behavior explained by media violence in meta-analyses is typically
between 1 and 10 percent. The argument is made that, in epidemiological terms, even small
percentages can have practical significance. The comparison is drawn to medical studies where small
effects, such as those related to diet, drugs, or therapy, are considered important and practically
significant by the medical profession. The passage concludes by highlighting that, given the multitude
of factors influencing aggressive behavior, the consistent 1 to 10 percent effect attributed to media
violence is, in fact, surprisingly large.
Summary: These persistent myths underscore the importance of thinking carefully about what the
effects of media violence on individuals may be. We must understand that everyone may be affected,
yet not in the same way. We must recognize that most children may be affected, although we may
only notice the effects in extreme cases. Two developmental theoretical approaches show a great
deal of promise for helping researchers to understand the effects of media violence on children: the
developmental tasks approach, and the risk and resilience approach. Each will be described in turn,
and their relevance to media effects will be discussed after each.
Developmental tasks approach
The Developmental Tasks Approach focuses on the key capacities or skills that children typically
acquire during their development. These capacities, such as language acquisition, formation of
attachment relationships, and development of peer relationships, are regarded as developmental
tasks. Adaptation in developmental psychopathology is often defined in terms of these tasks. The
approach serves as both a criterion for judging adaptation at various developmental stages and a
framework for understanding how development unfolds over childhood.
,Several principles are integral to the developmental task approach. There is a hierarchy to these tasks,
with different tasks gaining importance at different developmental stages. Success in earlier tasks is
foundational for later ones, illustrating the cumulative and interconnected nature of development.
The approach acknowledges that current adaptation is built on prior adaptation but emphasizes that
change is still possible. The successful negotiation of earlier tasks sets probabilistic pathways for
future competence, influenced by contemporaneous circumstances.
Despite the potential for change, prior adaptation constrains future development. The longer a child
follows an adaptive pathway, the less likely dire current circumstances can lead to maladaptive
outcomes. This perspective informs early prevention efforts, emphasizing the dynamic and context-
dependent nature of adaptation throughout a child's developmental journey.
The effects that violent or other media may have on children and youth may be very different
depending on the age of the child in question. As children face different developmental tasks, media
are likely to have a greater or lesser effect depending on the specific issues the children are facing at
that time.
Infancy (approximately 0–12 months): The key developmental task is developing a trusting
relationship with a caregiver. Important functions include neural network development, cognitive
learning through conditioning, and the beginnings of emotional expression and regulation.
Toddlerhood (approximately 1–21⁄2 years): Cognitive development involves symbolic representation
and language development. Socially, toddlers seek independence, learn to regulate behaviors, and
internalize societal rules and values. Emotionally, Self-conscious emotions emerge, and early
attachment relations continue to be crucial.
Early childhood (approximately 21⁄2–5 years): Cognitive development includes classification and
seriation skills (being able to organize things along a particular dimension such as size or height).
Socially, children develop a theory of mind (understanding that some things can’t be directly
observed), acquire gender-role concepts, and explore adult roles in play. The primary developmental
task is learning self-control and self-regulation (reflecting one actions etc), crucial for social
, competence. Emotionally, preschoolers begin to regulate their own emotions, internalizing standards.
Middle childhood (approximately 6–12 years): Cognitive development advances with an
understanding of appearance vs. reality. Socially, forming friendships becomes a key task (peer norms
and values are important), influencing self-concept and moral development. Children progress
through Kohlberg's moral reasoning stages, influenced by peer groups and cultural norms.
Adolescence (approximately 13–18 years): Cognitive development allows abstract thinking, improved
attention skills, and deeper conceptual understanding. Socially, achieving trust and closeness with
peers, gaining autonomy at home, and forming a personal identity are crucial. Adolescents progress
through Kohlberg's moral reasoning stages, including potential movement into postconventional
stages.
Media violence and developmental tasks example
The developmental tasks approach helps understand how media effects vary with a child's age. Using
a wrestling show as an example, the impact on children differs across developmental stages.
-Infancy (0–12 months): Little effect unless excessive exposure interferes with caregiving patterns.
-Toddlerhood (1–21⁄2 years): Derogatory language exposure; early signs of habituation and
desensitization. Learning societal standards and values is at an early stage.
-Early childhood (21⁄2–5 years): Negative effects on behavioral and emotional self-control;
reinforcement of gender stereotypes and acceptance of violence as a conflict resolution method.
-Middle childhood (6–12 years): Social rules become more important; potential reinforcement of
physical domination and humiliation as acceptable conflict resolution. Competence is defined by
fighting ability.
-Adolescence (13–18 years): Focus on intimate relationships; portrayal of stereotypical gender roles
and acceptance of physical aggression between sexes. Violence in media appears unremarkable and
mirrors societal norms.
A risk and resilience approach to development
A risk and resilience approach focuses on differential life experiences among children that may put
them at risk for future maladaptation (risk factors), and those factors that serve to ‘protect’ children
form the risk exposure (protective factors). This approach is helpful to explain why we may see
greater effects of media violence on some children than others. One of the strongest and most robust
findings in the risk and resilience field is that of the risk gradient, also called a cumulative risk model:
More risks lead to a greater likelihood of problematic functioning. Typical risk factors studied include
marital discord, low socioeconomic status (SES), maternal psychological distress, single parent
status/divorce, low maternal education, and exposure to violence, as well as genetic risk factors for
psychopathology or aggression.
Some individuals are more vulnerable to risk factors as other individuals. This phenomenon is termed
resilience. Resilience, a key concept, refers to the ability of some children to display normal or above-
normal competence despite experiencing adversity. The passage emphasizes that resilience arises
from dynamic interactions between the child and various protective factors in the genetic,
interpersonal, contextual, and societal domains.
In the context of media violence, the passage argues that exposure is a risk factor for aggressive
behavior, but it alone is not sufficient to cause extreme actions like shooting someone. The
cumulative effect of multiple risk factors, such as gang membership or drug use, increases the risk of
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