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Summary Block 9: Choices and dilemmas (Bachelor 3)
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Summary of the knowledge clips and lectures from block 9 week 1 to week 4 + overview of key concepts per normative ethical theory. Mainly in English.
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Blok 9: Choices and Dilemmas(Knowledge)
Summary week 1 to 4.
Week 1, workgroup 1: Introduction to ethics
Knowledgeclip 1 Martin Buijsen
Morality:
- Refers to views held in society on right and wrong of human behavior. Yet, morality differs
from religion, politics, law and etiquette hoe mensen zich zouden moeten gedragen.
- Morality refers to behavior with implications for others Morality needs a community of
people.
- Moral judgements are not merely subjective.
Morele oordelen zijn niet alleen maar subjectief (ook objectief).
Morality overlaps with many aspects of law, religion or etiquette, but it is not the same. They differ in
many ways.
The concept of a moral position (R. Dworkin)
What must I do to convince you that my position is a moral position?
- Produce reasons for it, but not every reason will do. A moral position cannot be based on:
prejudices (vooroordelen), emotional reactions, false propositions of fact or the beliefs of
others.
- I must genuinely endorse the principles my reasons presuppose.
- The moral arguments I make not only presuppose principles, nut also more abstract views on
moral reasoning.
The object of morality (G. J. Warnock)
- If morality is a social institution, what function does it have?
- The purpose of morality is to overcome human shortcomings. het doel van moraliteit is
het overwinnen van menselijke tekortkomingen.
- The general object of morality is to contribute to betterment of the human predicament,
primary and essentially by seeking to countervail ‘limited rationality and limited sympathies’
and their potentially most damaging effects.
Approaches to the study of morality
1. Normative: practical ethics (or applied ethics) & theoretical ethics (general normative ethics).
2. Non-normative: descriptive ethics & metaethics.
Normative approaches
1. General normative ethics:
- Participant’s perspective.
- Systematic-philosophical reflection on prevailing morality.
Utilitarianism, Deontology or Virtue ethics.
[1]
,2. Applied ethics (practical ethics):
- Moral concepts and norms in (bio)medical ethics and also in healthcare ethics.
Non-normative approaches
1. Descriptive ethics:
- Observers’ perspective you’re an outsider and take notes of what people think about the
right and wrong in a certain society.
- Description and theory of prevailing morality.
2. Metaethics: reflection on:
- The meaning of moral use of language.
- The differences with nonmoral use of language.
- The nature of moral judgement.
- Morality and relativism, morality and pluralism, etc.
Words that are often used in metaethics: right, obligation, virtue, justification, morality and
responsibility (recht, verplichting, deugd, rechtvaardigheid, moraliteit, verantwoordelijkheid)
Knowledgeclip 2 Martin Buijsen
Morality and relativism (R. Brandt)
Types of relativism:
1. Cultural relativism
- Different morality in different cultures.
- For example: In the West we consider it immoral if organs are removed from dead people
without any form of consent. There has to be consent of the donor. But in China it is
customary to remove organs from executive prisoners who have never consented to
postmortem organ donation.
- A relativist would say: that is how they do things in China. It is another morality and they
think that what they are doing is probably moral according to their standards. It is just our
Western standards why we think this is immoral.
2. Normative relativism
- There are principles we all share, but those principles can be translated in very different
specific rules. There may be differences on the level of rules, but on the level of principles
those are all shared by all human beings.
All human beings, all over the world, living in whatever country, part of whatever community,
throughout the ages, have an universal morality (= common morality). If you do not accept such a
universal morality, then it is not possible to criticize other moral judgements. Without common
morality, discussions between cultures are pointless.
Beauchamp and Childress do not accept relativism up to a point they are willing to be tolerant, but
they are universalist. They belief that all human beings share some sense of morality and some basic
values.
[2]
,Morality and pluralism (A. Macintyre)
- One thing which is typically of morality is that individual persons have disagreements. There
are going to be two courses of action: what to do?
- The way to overcome disagreements:
Objective, correct factual information.
Unambiguous terminology use words who have one fixed meaning, don’t use
ambiguous language (dubbelzinnige termen).
Acceptance of common framework of moral norms the four principles: respect for
autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice.
Use of (counter)examples.
Analysis of arguments (logic) always try to think and reason in a logical way. Never
contradict yourself.
Justification
Assuming that it will not do to simply claim that something is right because we believe it to be right,
would it – then – be possible to justify moral judgements? In other words, how can we show that
something is morally right?
Knowledge and truth in morality
- Cognitivism: knowledge and truth in morality
Naturalism
Intuitionism
- Noncognitivism: no knowledge or truth in morality
Emotivism: showing emotions
Prescriptivism: moral eruption “I do not agree with that behavior”.
- Reflective equilibrium: moral claims are only true if they fit with our overall understanding of
morality.
Knowledgeclip 3 Martin Buijsen
The ethical perspective
1. A moral problem is a normative problem it is not about how people actually behave, but
how they ought to behave.
2. No appeal is made to authority or dogma to come to a moral judgement if there is a moral
judgement it is trough proper thinking of our own.
3. Moral judgements should be based on good arguments exclusively.
4. The point of view of all concerned are taken into account (rekening houden met alle
perspectieven).
Moral norms
Common morality = universal morality
- People committed to morality, grasp the fundamental norms of morality, although there may
be differences of opinion regarding their precise meaning, scope, weight, etc.
- Fundamental norms apply to all human beings in all circumstances.
- Common morality is present in all cultures of all ages.
[3]
, - common morality is the product of human experience and history, shared by all.
- No place for relativism and pluralism on the level of the fundamental norms.
- Common morality encompasses moral convictions, not the standards preceding those
convictions (= overtuigingen).
- Theories of common morality are historical products.
Particular morality ≠ universal morality
- There is a common morality, but in daily life we have to follow the specific rules of our role
into society.
- Many norms do not apply to all human beings in all circumstances.
- Particular moralities share fundamental norms with other particular moralities.
- Particular moralities provide for responsibilities, professional standards, etc.
- Types of particular moralities: professional moralities, medical professional moralities.
A common framework of moral norms
Short informationclips moral principles
Four moral principles that help to identify a moral dilemma:
1. Beneficence
2. Non-maleficence
3. Autonomy
4. Justice
Beneficence
Beneficence: the act of doing good. Taking positive steps for the welfare of patients, clients or
citizens, not merely refrain from harming them.
Beneficence obligates people:…
- … to protect and defend the rights of others.
- …prevent harm from occurring to others.
- …remove conditions that will cause harm to others.
- …help persons with disabilities
- …to rescue people in danger.
Doing good should not necessarily invoke taking large risks in order to provide care. The line between
obligatory beneficence, action beyond obligatory vs ideal beneficence where you act like a hero is
often not clear and worthwhile to explore.
Doing good can give people satisfaction or fulfillment, but the commonly felt obligation of
beneficence could also originate from reciprocity: need for other people and provide favors to them.
Non-maleficence
Non-maleficence: to abstain from causing evil or harm to others. Harm: don’t kill, don’t cause pain,
don’t incapacitate, don’t impose risk.
[4]
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