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Introduction to Psychology (minor Psychology and the Brain) - summary of book Psychological Science
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Introduction to PsychologyTopic 1 – Genes and Evolution
What is Psychological Science? (p. 3-6)
Psychology is the study of mental activity and behavior. Psychological science is the study, through
research, of mind, brain and behavior. The mind refers to mental activity, which is the result from
biological processes within the brain. Behavior describes the totality of observable human actions.
What is the Genetic Basis of Psychological Science? (p. 106-116)
Environmental factors can affect gene expression. It may also influence how a gene influences our
thoughts, feelings and behavior. Biology and environment mutually influence each other. And biology
and environment influence the development of one’s brain.
Chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains segments called genes. Each gene specifies an exact
instruction to manufacture a distinct polypeptide, which make up a protein. The environment
determines which proteins are produced and when.
The genotype is an organism’s genetic makeup. The phenotype is that organism’s observable
physical characteristics, which can change. Genetics and the environment both influence the
phenotype. When a trait is influenced by many genes, the characteristic is polygenic.
At conception a unique genotype is created accounting for the genetic variation of human species.
Most mutations have no effect, sometimes they produce an advantage or disadvantage in terms of
survival or reproduction.
Behavioral genetics studies how genes and environment interact to influence psychological activity.
Two methods, twin and adoption studies, are used to assess the degree to which traits are inherited.
Heredity is the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring by means of genes.
Heritability is the proportion of variation in some specific trait in a population, not in an individual,
that is due to genetics.
Epigenetics looks at the processes by which the environment affects gene expression; various
environmental exposures do not alter DNA, but do alter DNA expression. These changes in DNA
expression can be passed along to future generations.
In animal studies, researchers can modify gene expression.
,Topic 2 – The Brain and the Nervous System
How does the nervous system operate? (p. 69-80)
Nervous system: CNS and PNS.
Neuron is the basic unit of the system – receive, integrate and transmit information. Communicate
selectively with other neurons to form circuits, neural networks.
- Excitable powered by electrical impulses and communicate through chemical signals.
- Four structural regions: dendrites, cell body, axon, terminal buttons.
- Synapse chemical communication.
Resting membrane potential = difference in electrical charge between inside and outside of
membrane due to ratio of positive and negative ions = - 70mV. Polarization is controlled by ion
channels (mostly sodium and potassium) and the sodium-potassium pump.
- Action potential is generated when threshold is reached (-55 mV).
o Sodium channels open influx sodium (depolarization) potassium channels open
outflux of potassium (repolarization)
o Action potential moves down the axon to the terminal buttons.
o Sum of excitatory and inhibitory signals lead to action potential.
o All-or-non principle.
o Strength of stimulation is determined by frequency of firing.
Neurotransmitters are made in neurons and released in the synapse in response to an action
potential. They bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane stimulating or inhibiting the neuron.
- Termination of signal by reuptake, enzyme deactivation and autoreception.
- The effects on the neurons are a function of the receptor the neurotransmitter binds to.
- Agonists and antagonists.
- Types of neurotransmitters:
o Acetylcholine – motor control over muscles – learning, memory, sleep, dreaming.
o Norepinephrine – arousal, vigilance, attention.
o Serotonin – emotional states, impulse control, dreaming.
o Dopamine – motivation, reward, motor control over voluntary movement.
o GABA – inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction.
o Glutamate – enhancement action potentials, learning and memory.
o Endorphins – pain reduction, reward.
What are the basic brain structures and their functions?
- Psychophysiological assessment examine how bodily functions change in association with
behaviors or mental states.
- Electrophysiology measuring the electrical activity in the brain.
o EEG is the device which measures brain activity.
o ERP provides information about speed at which the brain processes events.
- Brain imaging mostly measures blood flow.
o PET measures radioactive material more radiation means more blood flow.
o MRI provides information about the structure of the brain.
o fMRI measures blood flow indirectly by assessing changes in blood’s oxygen level.
o TMS disrupts brain activity momentarily in specific brain region.
,Brain regions
- Brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain) basic functions of survival.
o Reticular formation affects general alertness, involved in sleep.
- Cerebellum motor function, motor learning and memory.
- Subcortical region with limbic system appetite, emotions.
o Thalamus receives, organizes and relays sensory information (except for smell).
o Hypothalamus receives and projects much information.
o Hippocampus formation new memories.
o Amygdala learning about biologically relevant stimuli, fear, intensifies function of
memory during emotional arousal.
o Basal ganglia planning, producing movement.
Nucleus accumbens reward, motivating behavior.
- Cerebral cortex all thoughts, perceptions and complex behaviors. Corpus callosum connects
left and right hemisphere.
o Occipital lobes primary visual cortex vision
o Parietal lobes primary somatosensory cortex touch, attention
o Temporal lobes primary auditory cortex hearing
o Frontal lobes primary motor cortex + prefrontal cortex movement, attention,
planning, social life.
The corpus callosum allows the left and right hemisphere to communicate. The competencies of each
hemisphere complement each other. The hemispheres are specialized for certain functions, but each
hemisphere is capable of carrying out most cognitive processes, though sometimes in different ways.
Most cognitive processes involve the coordinated efforts of both hemispheres.
How does the brain communicate with the body?
The peripheral nervous system consists of:
- Somatic nervous system transmits sensory signals to the CNS and motoric signals to the body.
- Autonomic nervous system regulates internal environment by stimulating glands and
maintaining internal organs.
o Sympathetic division prepares for action.
o Parasympathetic division returns to resting state.
The endocrine system influences thoughts, behaviors and actions. Works together with the nervous
system to regulate psychological activity. The nervous system is fast and uses electrochemical signals;
the endocrine system is slow and uses hormones. Hormones are released into the bloodstream by
endocrine glands. Their effects are long lasting and affect multiple targets.
- Primarily controlled by hypothalamus via pituitary glands. Neural activation leads to secretion of
releasing factor by the hypothalamus, which causes the pituitary to release a specific hormone.
This hormone can affect endocrine glands throughout the body.
- The gonads influence sexual behavior produces androgens and estrogens.
, Topic 3 – Consciousness
Consciousness (p. 121-158)
Consciousness consists of one’s moment-by-moment, personal experiences.
Conscious experiences exist, but their subjective nature makes them difficult to study empirically.
Examining patterns of brain activity can identify several aspects of your conscious experience. The
brain and mind are inseparable (rejection of dualism); activity of neurons in the brain produces the
contents of consciousness – for each type of content there is an associated pattern of brain activity.
Global workspace model
- Consciousness arises as a function of which brain circuits are active = you experience your brain
regions’ output as conscious awareness.
- Different areas of the brain deal with different types of information and each area is in turn
responsible for conscious awareness of that type of information.
- Consciousness is the mechanism that makes people actively aware of information and that
prioritizes what information they need or want to deal with at any moment.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) = impairment in mental functioning caused by a blow to or very sharp
movement of the head. Ranging from mild to severe.
- Concussions are formally known as mild, but can have long-lasting effects.
- Coma allows the brain to rest. People do not respond to external stimuli.
o Some people might be conscious = minimally conscious state.
o When people appear to have emerged from coma yet do not respond to external stimuli for
more than a month = unresponsive wakefulness syndrome. Bad prognosis.
- Brain death is the irreversible loss of brain function.
- Locked-in syndrome = (nearly) all voluntary muscles are paralyzed.
Attention
Conscious awareness involves attention. We can execute routine or automatic tasks without much
attention. Difficult or unfamiliar tasks require paying attention. This controlled processing is slower
than automatic processing.
People have limited capacity for sensory information; screening of incoming information to let in only
the most important. Some stimuli demand attention and shut off the ability to attend anything else.
Some stimuli, for example, evoke emotions that capture attention because they provide information
about potential threats. Research does show that unattended information is processed to some
extent.
Change blindness = results from inattention to certain visual information.
Human behavior can be influenced by unconscious processes.
Subliminal perception occurs when stimuli get processed by sensory systems but, because of their
short durations or subtle forms, do not reach consciousness. This could influence people. However,
evidence suggests that subliminal messages have minimal effects on behavior. It can influence how
people think, but has little/no effect on complex actions.
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