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Health Services Research Methods 3rd Edition by Leiyu Shi - Answer Key
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,Chapter 1Answer Key
1. What are the major characteristics of scientific inquiry?
The primary purpose of scientific inquiry is to create knowledge that clarifies a particular aspect of the
world. The key assumption of scientific inquiry is that reality is not completely random or chaotic, but,
rather, demonstrates logical patterns of regularity. This assumption, called positivism, helped build the
two pillars of scientific inquiry: scientific theory and empiricism. Scientific theory is a framework for
understanding and explaining patterns of regularity in the real world, and empiricism is the approach
used in scientific inquiry to discover these patterns. It also requires that data be observable under
specifiable conditions. Since empirical evidence may be influenced by researchers’ perspectives,
researchers must maintain objectivity in their observations, free from the bias of personal feelings,
conjectures, or preferences. Researchers should also uphold ethical standards in research.
2. What is the purpose of scientific theory?
Scientific theories are used to derive research hypotheses, plan research, make observations, and
explain generalizations and patterns of regularity. They provide a systematic explanation and make
predictions for a particular phenomenon.
3. What is the relationship between theory and research?
Theory provides guidance for research. Research, in turn, verifies, modifies, or reconstructs theory. This
interactive process between theory and research contributes to the enrichment and development of
scientific theories.
4. Can research be free of values? Why or why not?
Scientific inquiry cannot settle debates on values, but it can be influenced by them. Personal values and
beliefs frequently influence the process of research. The challenge for scientists, particularly in the social
sciences, is to maintain objectivity and openness as much as possible in their scientific inquiry.
In research, personal values may compromise the validity of the research inquiry and make the findings
biased. The problem with value judgments in research is that not only are they essentially untestable,
they may also make a researcher prejudiced in undertaking research. Although it can be difficult,
,researchers should strive to set aside personal values and conduct value-free or value-neutral research
in order to minimize bias in their findings.
Even though researchers must hold back their personal values while conducting research, they are likely
to be influenced by their scientific disciplines or paradigms. Different paradigms tend to espouse
different values. They affect the types and scope of problems to be studied, the methods used, and the
approaches to interpreting the findings. Biases may influence which problems are selected for study and
which research strategies are preferred. Since it is difficult to think beyond one’s established paradigm
and to suppress one’s professional values, it is important that researchers state their professional values
explicitly, so that their audience may consider the scope and limitations of the research in the context of
other paradigms.
5. Why must scientists uphold ethical standards in research?
Ethical standards, or the proper conduct of research with full consideration of the subjects’ interests,
became paramount in the wake of the Nuremberg trials, when worldwide attention was brought to the
use of captive humans as research subjects by German scientists during World War II. These revelations
prompted the worldwide development and refinement of ethical standards and principles in research to
ensure that potential human subjects are protected from being used as “guinea pigs” in research. As a
public trust endeavor, research must be conducted in a manner that is ethical, trustworthy, and socially
responsible.
The Declaration of Helsinki, established by the World Medical Association in 1964 to regulate research
involving human subjects, recommends ethical guidelines for biomedical research that involves human
subjects and includes the principles that “research protocols should be reviewed by an independent
committee prior to initiation” and that “research with humans should be based on results from
laboratory animals and experimentation.” The Declaration of Helsinki is regarded as the cornerstone
document on international human research ethics.
6. What is the process of generating scientific theory?
The process of generating scientific theory consists of six steps: specifying the topic; specifying the
assumptions; specifying the range of phenomena; specifying the major concepts and variables;
specifying the propositions, hypotheses, and relationships; and specifying the theory.
, 7. Identify the major types of relationships between variables.
The major types of relationships between variables include:
Positive or direct relationships, in which both variables vary in the same direction such that an
increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the value of the other
variable
Negative or inverse relationships, in which the variables vary in opposite directions such that an
increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable
Symmetrical relationships, in which change in either variable is accompanied by change in the
other variable
Asymmetrical relationships, in which change in one of the variables is accompanied by change in
the other, but not vice versa
Linear or straight-line relationships, in which the two variables vary at the same rate, regardless
of whether their values are low, intermediate, or high
Nonlinear relationships, in which the rate at which one variable changes in value is different for
different values of the other variable
Spurious relationships, in which a correlation between two variables is caused by a third or
extraneous variable (the antecedent variable), rather than by their interrelationship
Intervening relationships, which are caused by an intervening variable that is between the
independent and dependent variables
Suppressor relationships, which are relationships concealed by a suppressor variable that is
positively associated with one variable and negatively associated with the other
Causal relationships, in which two variables are related and vary together so that a change in
one is accompanied by a change in the other, and vice versa
8. What conditions are necessary to establish a causal relationship?
There are three basic requisites to a causal relationship: statistical association, sequence of influence,
and nonspuriousness. For one variable to be a cause of the other, the two variables must have a
statistically significant relationship, or correlation, although the association does not need to be perfect.
The causal factor must also occur first, before the effect, and a change in one variable must result in a
change in another, regardless of other variables.
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