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Summary African American thematic notes
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A* a level history notes on African Americans. OCR exam board.
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African Americans- Thematic notes (Social, Economic, Political, Federal government, Activism)Social:
Black codes- early indication of southern white attitudes to the newly freed slaves. The southern
state legislatures were determined to keep them in an inferior position. Some artfully argued that
the Codes were an advance for blacks- bridging the gap between slavery and freedom. Although
many aspects of the codes were soon nullified by the military, it showed the extent of animosity held
towards blacks in the south. What did the codes entail? Interracial unions were outlawed, legal
rights were limited, barred from giving evidence against a white person, or serving on juries, not
permitted to vote. As AA leader Frederick Douglass remarked, most black people were ‘free from the
individual master but a slave to society’.
KKK- first formed in December 1865 in a reaction to black freedom, especially set up to oppose
enfranchised blacks voting for the republicans and also guaranteed the supremacy of the white race.
By 1867 it asserted that whites were ‘endowed with an evident superiority over all other races’ and
their domination was god-given. Violent atrocities committed by the KKK were unprecedented and
were directed not only against blacks but anyone who supported their cause. The activities of the
KKK reflected the tense inter-racial atmosphere prevalent in the south during reconstruction, and
while the first Klan did not last long, the atmosphere of racial hostility and terror it helped to foster
remained a crucial fact of life in the south and served as a major impediment to the development of
AA civil rights
Freedman’s Bureau- set up by the federal government in 1865 to support freed slaves in the short
term and to provide a basis for long term security- help included finding homes and employment
and providing food, education and medical care. Crucially, the bureau supported the work of black
self-help groups in providing education for black children and the supporting of adults financially by
philanthropic organisations in the north (marked the beginning of blacks helping their own cause).
However these educational advances were only for a minority of AA’s, by 1890 65% of AA children in
the south were illiterate, compared to the 15% of white children- clearly there was such a disparity
in education and this lack of equal educational opportunity would continue to be a major grievance
in the plight for civil rights. It’s long term impact was limited given that it was closed in 1872,
inferring that federal interest in the education on blacks had ended.
Post reconstruction- the development of institutionalised segregation in the south ensured that civil
rights were reduced rather than increased
The economic and social climate in which most blacks lived was not conducive to the awareness and
development of civil rights. Day-to- day survival was more important. They had freedom of
movement but this was at the expense of stability.
Migration to the north- before First World War some 10% of AA’s left the south, this saw the
emergence of the Harlem district and black ghettos being developed. Whilst there was no legally
determined segregation, they frequently experienced discrimination and their range of employment
opportunities, quality of housing, low level of eduction and effective confinement meant their
quality of life did not significantly improve. Interracial violence remained a prominent feature of AA
lives. However, this confinement saw the emergence of a black culture developing.
Jim Crow Laws- segregation laws developed rapidly between 1887 and 1891, basically served to
enforce segregation throughout the south
Theories of racial superiority- blacks were the natural underclass and there they must stay (re-
enforced by the increasingly prevalent climate of racism before 1900), social darwinism (blacks were
scientifically inferior to whites) asserted the hierarchy of the races; provided pseudo scientific
justification necessary for discrimination against black people. Publications realised that perpetuated
a black stereotype why included laziness, intellectual weakness and a tendency to violence when
provoked: upon these grounds, justification was given for segregation and the poor conditions in
which they were subjected to.
, Oppression (lynchings)- 1880 to 1910 saw the height of a lynching campaign against AA’s, racism at
its rawest and grossest, it was a complete removal of their human and civil rights. Southern states
did little to prevent it, created a further climate of fear and had a huge impact on the AA community.
The extent southern whites were willing to go to retain their superiority is evidenced by these
lynchings, revealing the mountain in which AA’s had to climb before they could reach
equality/acquire full civil rights.
Washington- for education the Tuskegee Institute, however he did not use his position to challenge
either the willer, violent side of control (lynchings, black codes etc) or the political control of
stopping blacks voting. Despite his efforts, the educational gap between black and white was
widening, after 1900 rapidly increasing spending on white schools was not matched in the AA sector.
Pull factors for mass migration to the North- AA’s constantly felt inferior, segregation, inequality,
lack of franchise, rigid discrimination and the climate of fear engendered by lynchings
Life in the north- civil rights still very limited, ghetto lifestyle had a direct effect on education, much
less money was spent on education for black children, poor housing conditions, lack of sufficient
economic opportunities.
Positives of movement to north- increased black consciousness and an age emerged known as the
Harlem Renaissance. There was an outpouring of writers, poets, musicians and painters from black
society in the 1920s and 1930s. A significant black middle class developed who had more
educational opportunities and asa. Result there’s were more black professionals and businesses than
ever before.
Revival of the KKK- by 1924 it claimed over 5 million members; represented traditional American
virtues for many in the south.
Murder of Emmet Till (1955)- clear that opposition to blacks had not reduced in the south and that
the climate of fear remained incredibly high.
Brown v board- massive turning point for education
Little Rock nine (1957)- Eisenhower was moved to take action after a clear example of southern
resistance to integrated education in Little Rock. The governor used National Guard troops to bar the
entry of 9 black children to the Central high school after a federal district court had ruled that the
school must be desegregated. Response- the president sent in federal troops to escort these
children into school. Significance? Only occasion when Eisenhower used his federal authority to
intervene and enforce the brown legal ruling.
Education- with AA’s living in confined areas, education was de facto segregated. Black pupils
became caught in a poverty cycle, leaving school with few formal qualifications anf ill-equipped to
compete in the job market, where many job opportunities were for skilled workers with formal job
qualification
Bussing during Nixon’s presidency- desegregation laws could be implemented providing the SC was
still liberal enough to enforce them. Bussing was the mandatory transporting of children to areas
outside their own locality to achieve a better race mix in the schools. This became a radical way to
try to force racial integration and beat de facto segregation. Those who liked neighbourhood
schools, or had racist suspicions about how their white children would be treated by blacks, often
opposed it. However, by 1972, due to more effective implementation, southern schools were better
integrated than many other areas in the US
Rodney King affair (1992)- severely beaten and killed by the police and this incident was caught on
video camera. An all white jury acquitted the policemen who were accused of serious assault. A
stream of protest erupted in the force of race riots in Los Angeles. Over 50 people were killed and
2,000 injured. These events illustrate the strength of opposition from the inside of law and order
that remained to AA rights, and that much was still to be done nearing the end of the period. Rodney
King was emblematic of the clear social divide and racism that persisted right up to the end of the
period.
CLIMATE OF FEAR STILL PERSISTED, BLACKS WERE STILL INHERENTLY UNEQUAL AND MALTREATED.
23% of young AA men were in prison, on parole or on probation in 1992
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