Each assignment requires that you write an introduction in which you unpack the question by
providing your interpretation and a brief outline of how you are going to approach the question.
Each paragraph ought to explain a point/fact that addresses the question. You should support
your points with reference to literature and where necessary give examples. You should not
have a paragraph that only explains an example as examples alone are not an answer.
Your essay should end with a conclusion where you sum up the points that you discussed in the
essay. You may not discuss any new issues in your conclusion. Make it short and to the point.
Always start by reading the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content and
make notes on the relevant information to answer the essay question. You may use additional
sources in your essay. Please ensure that you provide references for all the sources you use.
Below are the guidelines to questions 2-7.
Question 2
Compare the traditional project cycle, MacArthur’s project sequence and the
participatory project management cycle. Then discuss which one of them is best suited
to ensure that learning takes place and that project planning is improved.
Assessment evidence:
Draw a comparison of the three approaches.
Analyse the approaches and discuss which one allows learning to take place.
Substantiate points with reference to sources.
Provide relevant examples.
How to approach the question
Start by consulting the prescribed material to form an understanding of the content. In your
introduction, unpack how you have chosen to address the question, and if you like, add the
steps that you are going to follow to address the question.
The study unit takes Conyers and Hills’ project planning process as the starting point before
moving on to MacArthur’s “project sequence”. It then turns to the participatory project
management cycle. This cycle is discussed in the article in the Hart et al article using two case
studies.
To do well in this assignment you must show the similarities and differences between the three
project cycles:
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• the traditional project cycle
• MacArthur’s project sequence
• participatory project management cycle
The goal of all project cycles irrespective of the name they go by, is to achieve one objective
which is realising their goals, objectives and the activities of a project (Hart et al). The
differences lie in the way they go about it. The traditional project cycle has a straight forward
way of doing it with its seven fixed phases (pages 10-11 of Study guide). MacArthur prefers to
call his model a sequence as it does not follow a strict route. MacArthur’s sequence for instance
allows for exit routes when projects fail to move from one stage to the next. The participatory
project management cycle is different from the other two in that it takes into consideration
aspects of human involvement in the project for example gender or the environmental impact of
the project and also encourages stakeholder participation.
A possible study strategy is to briefly discuss the project cycle, MacArthur’s project sequence
then the participatory project management cycle without going into detail about the different
phases. Note that the phases of the models should only be part of your discussion if they show
similarities or differences between the models. The next step will be to show the differences and
the similarities between the three. The study guide has outlined how MacArthur’s sequence is
different to Conyers and Hill’s model. Take note to acknowledge that this has already been
noted and it is not your discovery; this will help you avoid losing marks for plagiarism. In the
second part of your discussion, you are supposed to explain which one of these models is
conducive to learning. To get this part right you should be clear for whom the learning is
intended for.
The primary function of the project cycle is to provide structure and direction to development
activities at the same time as allowing for key objectives and issues to remain in focus. The
traditional project cycle and the sequence model can be applied to any type of development
project. In contrast, the participatory management cycle was designed to cope specifically with
participatory projects. Read the article by Hart et al to familiarise yourself with this model. The
appeal of the cyclic models is to promote learning from experience and reflection. The article by
Lane shows that participation is determined by the type of planning model used. Lane does not
view participation as a given, he expresses that participation is determined by many variables
e.g. the kinds of knowledge used in planning practice.
Note that the traditional cycle and McArthur’s sequence are blueprint models. As such, their
rigid nature does not allow learning to take place. You should however point out that McArthur
allows for entry points and exit points during the cycle which makes the model not as rigid as
other blueprints where new ideas can only be incorporated in a new cycle.
Mark Allocation:
0% – 49%: An essay that receives 0% means that you have copied from the study guide or any
other source, such as an internet source. Any form of copying and pasting does not
demonstrate understanding of the question and, therefore, will receive 0%. If you obtained a
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, mark of 49% and below, you did not reference correctly or consistently, there was evidence of
plagiarism in your essay and/or you did not answer the question.
50% – 59%: This mark will be assigned if your essay shows a basic understanding of the
question. You have also shown correct and consistent application of referencing and citation
techniques.
60% – 74%: You will receive a mark in this range if you have done all of the above and your
answer shows that you have clearly understood the concepts discussed in the essay and
provided relevant examples to demonstrate your understanding.
75% and higher: A distinction will be given to an assignment that does all the above and in
addition your answer needs to demonstrate that you have engaged critically with the material.
Your answer must also reflect independent thought.
Question 3
Critically discuss why interactive planning is considered more appropriate than
directive planning in contemporary community development projects.
Assessment evidence:
Differentiate between directive and interactive project planning.
Explain the type of projects that the models are typically used for.
Discuss the constraints of rigid or blueprint models in project planning.
Discuss the strengths of the interactive planning model.
Identify the weaknesses of interactive planning model and show how the approach can be
strengthened.
How to approach the question
Start by reading the prescribed sources attentively and noting the two approaches to project
planning. Dedicate the first part of your answer to explaining the differences between directive
or blueprint planning and interactive or adaptive planning and describing the type of projects
that each approach is typically used for.
The directive or blueprint approach to project planning means that plans are drawn before the
start of a project. The models within this approach set up the strategies and objectives way in
advance because they assume that the project environment is known from the onset, stable and
predictable. Such models see little, or no additional knowledge being required to make projects
work once they commence. Examples of such models include MacArthur’s project sequence,
the traditional project cycle as well as the logframe. The type of projects that this approach is
typically used for is those involving large scale physical infrastructure. For example, a national
dam project.
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