ANSWERS ALL LEARNING OUTCOMES, LECTURE AND CLASS NOTES, SUMMARIES INCLUDED , 66 PAGES, DETAILED, INCLUDES ARTICLE NOTES
STUDY UNIT 1- THE RISK SOCIETY
STUDY UNIT 2-TECHNOLOGY AND CYBERCRIME
STUDY UNIT 3- THE RISK SOCIETY
KRM320 QUARTER 4 TEST NOTES
CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY ISSUES
STUDY UNIT 1: THE RISK SOCIETY
After having studied this study unit you should be able to demonstrate a clear
comprehension of the so called “risk society”
Explain to what extent the risk society principle is applicable to South Africa
INTRODUCTION (Beck, Giddens & Hasan articles)
The world is perceived to be a dangerous place that we need to protect ourselves
from. Risk society – manner in which society organises itself in response to risk. Eg.
taking part in methods of protection & taking out insurance, calculating possible
future risks & reporting concerns to media.
Beck, Giddens & various others attempted to explain the risk society – with
differences & similarities. These authors argued that with the rise of industrial
society we exposed ourselves to new risks different from natural risks & risks that
have always been part of human life (terrorism, nuclear reactor explosions, oil spills).
Middle ages had no notion of risk & no notion in any traditional culture – life only
seen as hazardous. Reason: they saw dangers experienced as a given. Either comes
from God, or comes from a world that is taken for granted. Attempts to prevent is
seen as sinful.
Risk first used by Western explorers when they travelled the world. Word referred to
a world we are exploring and seeking to control & normalise. Attempts to control
uncertainty of future became outdated with establishment of astronomy as science.
17th/18th century probabilism was used as they laid claims to high degree of
probability of something happening. 19th century statistics formed basis of
probabilistic models which can be projected beyond the present by deriving course
of future from past trends. Today: no longer live our lives as fate (individualisation) –
now take precautions for future “possible” risks in everyday life = start worrying
about what we did to nature instead of what nature can do to us.
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,DEFINITIONS:
o Beck defined risk as anticipation of catastrophe; they are not real but are
“becoming real” Termed risk society as a society that is organised in
response to risk
o Sociologist Giddens described it as a society increasingly preoccupied with
future & safety which generates notion of risk Also specific calculable
uncertainties
o Giddens stated notion of responsibility closely linked to risk As new
technologies invade the core of our lives & more of what we experience
comes under scientific spotlight, there is an increasing insecurity in the world
as we are involved in systems we do not understand Thus: risk society we
increasingly live on technology frontier that no one completely understands
and generates variety of possible futures
o Risk defined in risk society: as systematic way of dealing with hazards &
insecurities Induced and introduced by modernisation itself
o New concepts needed in modern society:
- Actuarial thinking: this is actual scientific and statistical
calculations
- Actuarial criminology: it is a myth to believe that the
government has complete control over the citizens
They try to prove control by over-regulating law
abiding citizens eg. Speeding fines
RISK (A WAY OF THINKING IN ALL SPHERES)
- We live in a world of manufactured uncertainty
Threat (unknown future) vs. Risk (make the future knowable by assessment and
measurement)
Modern risks are social constructs
Threat vs. Risk vs. Catastrophe
Manufactured risk and uncertainty
o De-localised
o Incalculable
o Non-compensable
HOW DID SOCIETY TRANSFORM FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO DATE?
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, Risk in the past
Reading : World Risk Society and Manufactured Uncertainties - Ulrich Beck
Reading: Risk and Responsibility - Anthony Giddens
Reading: Techno-environmental risks and ecological modernisation in “double-risk”
societies: reconceptualising Ulrich Beck’s risk society thesis - Md Nazmul Hasan
1. Shift from Religion to Modernization:In the Middle Ages, religion held a dominant role in
shaping people's perspectives on the future and managing uncertainties. However, with the
advent of modernization, particularly during the early modern period, religious authority
began to decline, and alternative approaches to coping with future uncertainties emerged.
2. Differentiation of Dangers and Risks:The transition to modernity introduced a conceptual
differentiation between dangers, risks, and manufactured uncertainties. Dangers, such as
sickness, wars, and epidemics, were perceived as threats often attributed to divine will.
Risks, on the other hand, were understood as uncertainties that could be quantified,
managed, and insured, primarily associated with industrialization and progress. In contrast,
modern societies grappled with the emergence of manufactured uncertainties,
characterized by their dependence on human decisions, their creation within society, and
their incalculable and uncontrollable nature.
3. Anticipation of Catastrophe: Risks, in modern society, represent the anticipation of
potential catastrophes. Risks are events that have not yet materialized but become
significant when anticipated. This anticipation carries political and social consequences and
can reshape the world.
4. Globalization of Risk: The concept of a "world risk society" describes a globalized context
where risks and uncertainties are no longer confined to specific geographical areas. The
causes and consequences of these risks transcend borders, encompassing issues like climate
change, financial crises, and terrorism.
5. Incalculable and Non-Compensable Risks:In contemporary societies, some risks are
deemed incalculable and non-compensable. This means that traditional methods of
quantification, insurance, and monetary compensation are no longer effective in addressing
these risks. Examples include climate change, genetic manipulation, and terrorism, which
have the potential for irreversible consequences.
6. Intersecting and Commingling Risks:Threats, risks, and manufactured uncertainties often
intersect and commingle in reality. It is not just a matter of choosing between safe and risky
alternatives but rather between different risky alternatives with qualitatively distinct
dimensions.
7. Social Construction of Risk: Modern risks are social constructs heavily reliant on collective
perceptions and shared patterns of experience. Narratives, often found in literature, play a
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, significant role in making these risks relatable. Visualization and signification are critical in
establishing shared visibility and credibility.
8. Role of Mass Media and Technology:Mass media, science, technology, and cultural
institutions have fundamentally reshaped the understanding and communication of risks.
Visualization techniques and the power dynamics behind them have transformed how
people perceive and respond to risks.
This transformation highlights the shift from religious interpretations of the future to a
complex interplay of risks, manufactured uncertainties, and shared perceptions. It reflects
how modern societies confront the challenges and uncertainties brought about by
globalization, technology, and the acceleration of change. The dynamics of risk,
responsibility, and individualization play significant roles in shaping this societal evolution.
- Risk society is a society increasingly preoccupied with the future and safety
(Giddens)
- Industrial society brought the need for private & public insurance
- External risk vs. Manufactured risk
- Double-Risk Societies
- Ecological modernisation and Risk society
- Countries in the global South face all the dangers of a risk society before achieving
post-industrial status
- They face “double-risk”
o i. Cannot fulfil material needs of all
o ii. Impact of techno-environmental risks (E.g. pollution; coal-based power
generation)
- Western countries become self-correcting often at a price to the “double-risk”
countries
- Ecological modernisation theory (economic growth can continue whilst ensuring
environmental protection)
- Risk Society [1st modernity = industrial society to the 2nd modernity = the risk
society → From “I am hungry to I am afraid”
- Western societies – reflexive modernity] BUT “double-risk” countries face different
levels of development and risk
- Risk management (how to identify & manage it)
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claim that information is solely in my words.
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