PERSONOLOGY EXAM PREP
(PYC4804)
2017
,CONTENTS
Chapter 4: Jung’s analytical theory ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 5: The individual psychology of Adler ................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 8: The language-oriented theory of Lacan .......................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 10: The social cognitive learning approach ......................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 11: The self-actualisation theory of Maslow ....................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 14: Existential theory of Frankl ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 15: The ecosystemic approach ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter 16: Eastern perspectives ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 17: African perspectives ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
,CHAPTER 4: JUNG’S ANALYTICAL THEORY
- Rejected Freud’s mechanistic view of a person, and proposed that behaviour is a consequence of past events but that it is
future oriented (deterministic past and teleological future)
- Oedipus complex: result of the interaction between psychic and religious needs in the mother-father-child relationship
View of the person
Dialectical (opposing forces) view of the person: complex, dynamic organisms made up of opposing factors that may drive or
draw them into action consciously or unconsciously
• These opposing forces are present in all people; thus no one can be purely extraverted/introverted, all good/all evil –
unconscious is dominated by the opposite of the conscious
• Human strive to integrate these opposite forces into a harmonious, whole self
• Unresolved conflict viewed as the basis of healthy development
Holistical view of the person: focus on psyche content, structure, and processes as well as places it in a broad, inherited
collective context – the collective unconscious
• Ultimate goal of personality development: attain wholeness by the attainment of self
Dimensions of being human:
• Physiological: all processes and drives essential for survival
• Social: interaction with other people
• Psychic: conscious processes that can be logically understood and help a person adapt to their reality
• Spiritual/Religious: includes all irrational aspects of being human; attainment of self is concerned with the religious
dimension of the psyche especially
The structure of personality
Psyche: all conscious and unconscious psychic processes; continuously strives towards wholeness
Each psyche has the potential of becoming a self when its opposing components are integrated into a whole
(spiritual/transcendental psyche)
Purpose in life: striving towards wholeness by reconciling polarities to bring about integration of the conscious and unconscious
into a whole (the self)
The psyche functions on 3 levels of consciousness:
1. The conscious
- Ego is the essence of the conscious, but the conscious is a pre-requisite for ego’s development
- Ego consciousness (conscious experience of the “I”) comes from the unconscious
- Ego: all conscious aspects of functioning (sensations, perceptions, feelings, thoughts, memory), and it functions:
o Internally: how ego structures the individual’s awareness of themselves to give them their own identity which
remains fairly stable overtime
o Externally: ego helps structure reality via sensory perception, thus facilitating interaction with the external
world (enables us to understand physical and social world, and be active in it)
2. The personal unconscious
- Storeroom of personal experiences and interactions with the world, and the interpretations of these experiences and
interactions
- Contents are available to consciousness
- Continuous interaction between the personal unconscious and the ego
- 3 ways in which contents of the unconscious are formed:
o Mental data loses its intensity and is forgotten
o Some sensory impressions are not intense to penetrate the conscious, but can enter the psyche
, o Some mental information was repressed to the unconscious
- Individual complexes – most important component of the personal unconscious
o Complex: composite of ideas or experiences loaded with specific emotional intensity
o A complex has two components: one determined by repeated interactions with the environment, and one
determined by archetypes and instincts from the collective unconscious
- A complex forms when an archetype or instinct is combined with a personal experience
- Trauma and moral conflict most likely to lead to development of complexes
- Repressed autonomous complex can lead to fragmentation of the psyche which manifests as split personality or
psychosis
3. The collective unconscious
- The inherited potential that has been transmitted from previous generations
- Exists independently and is not influenced by conscious or unconscious experiences, but it does influence the conscious
- It contains instincts (physiologically inherited impulses that determine behaviour w/out conscious motivation) and
archetypes (innate psychic predispositions that influence a person to perceive and experience in a certain way)
- Archetypes form the basis of human thought, and can be expressed through symbols (perceivable sign of something
imperceivable; i.e. fantasies, visions, myths, art)
An archetype exists for every human experience, but the most important ones include:
• The persona: develops in relation to the role the individual must fulfil in society, and it reflects individual’s perception
of how they would like to be perceived by others; when the persona assumes a too important role in the psyche,
neurosis or pathology may develop
• The anima and animus: a person has physiological and psychological traits of both sexes; anima – female archetype
present in every man at the unconscious level, and it represent feelings and emotions; animus – male archetype
present in every woman at unconscious level, and it represents logic and rationality; anima/animus contain qualities
that are lacking in the persona; combined with personal experience, form a complex that plays a role in determining the
behaviour of the two sexes toward each other, understanding of each other, and choice of partner
• The shadow: primitive animal instincts inherited by humanity in the evolutionary process from lower forms of life.
Strongest and most dangerous archetype as it contains emotions and urges that are normally unacceptable to society,
and is thus repressed: the more societal rules, that larger the shadow and more repressed; shadow might be repressed
when it threatens the persona. The shadow is also the source of vitality, spontaneity and creativity.
• The self: motivates the individual to integrate various components of the psyche into a whole. It surfaces when the
conscious and unconscious are no longer in opposition. The development of the self is powered by a religious instinct
and a transcendent function, compelling the psyche to transcend its opposing systems and integrate them in a state of
balance.
The dynamics of personality
Individual’s behaviour is not only the outcome of past forces which drive him/her into action, but also the result of the
individual’s (psyche) striving for completeness & wholeness through the attainment of the self, 3rd principal added later →
synchronicity (causes of behaviour are not to be sought in past or future, but in a meaningful occurrence between events).
Significant – fact that events occur concurrently (shouldn’t be attributed to coincidence or chance).
The human being as an energy system
• Human beings – complex energy system. Libido – physical & psychic energy.
• Psychic energy – (‘life energy’) energy of the personality – a hypothetical construct, not directly observable. A force that
generates motion & a state that has the potential for action.
• Physical & psychic energy – generated internally by the metabolic process, & there is a mutual interaction between
psychic & physical energy.
• Psyche can also acquire further energy from outside through individual experiences (psychic experiences ‘digested’&
converted into psychic energy).
• Psychic value – intensity of psychic energy invested in psychic activity, psychic value of a conscious activity can be
inferred from the amount of time & attention devoted to it.
, • Ways of establishing the strength of unconscious psychic values: 1. By perception of complex indicators 2. By measuring
emotional reactions through a word-association test.
Distribution of psychic energy
Two principles to determine how energy is distributed throughout psychic functioning:
• The principle of equality (conservation of energy): psyche conserves energy and never loses or adds to it. Energy lost in
one component will reappear in another. Process of redistribution of energy in psyche takes place continuously.
• The principle of entropy (balance) – energy flows from a stronger (or warmer) element to a weaker (or colder) element.
Psyche constantly tries to maintain balance between different subsystems through redistribution of energy.
Complete equality and balance will never be realised, because psyche loses energy through mental activities and can obtain
additional energy through metabolic process and individual experiences.
Channelling of libido: distribution of psychic energy or the process whereby energy is transferred or transformed or transferred
Libido channelled by means of 2 processes:
• Progression: when ego fully adapts to demands of environment and needs of the unconscious.
• Regression: flow of energy is blocked, preventing a successful compromise between opposing systems. Not necessarily
negative – may make it easier to access useful knowledge from personal or collective unconscious.
Progression and regression are transitional stages in flow of energy, and they are not mutually exclusive.
Regression can pose a great danger to psyche if re-channelled energy from the unconscious threatens to overwhelm ego, thus
causing psychotic or neurotic behaviour
• Sublimation: displacement of energy from an instinctive/less differentiated process to a more differentiated process –
of cultural or spiritual nature
• Repression: conscious impulses threaten ego/persona, and are repressed to the unconscious.
Interaction between subsystems of psyche
Subsystems are in continual interaction because of redistribution of energy, and there are 3 forms of interaction in subsystems:
• Opposition: Most subsystems are in polar relationships to one another so that they can generate tension essential for
life. No tension→ no energy→ no psyche or life. Even though psyche strives towards a tensionless state, opposing
forces exist everywhere in the psyche.
• Compensation: Opposites attract and complement each other. Through compensation, the psyche prevents lopsided
development of a subsystem which could lead to neurosis or psychosis. Occurs mostly between the conscious and
unconscious
• Synthesis: People can effect a union (synthesis) between opposing systems through transcendent function, according to
which opposing forces can be integrated in development of self.
Attitudes of the psyche
Two types of attitudes in terms of direction psyche energy is channelled – introversion and extroversion.
Connection between 2 pairs concepts: Progression, as adaptation to outer conditions, could be regarded as extroversion.
Regression, as adaptation to inner conditions, could be regarded as introversion.
• Introversion – inner directedness of psychic energy based o subjective experiences of the ego. Introvert are
preoccupied with own emotions &experiences, appears aloof or even asocial.
• Extraversion – directed towards external reality. Extrovert reveals a lively interest in the world around them and
appears highly sociable.
Both attitudes are present in all people, but one is usually more dominant and conscious, and the other is unconscious and
subordinate (which is able to assert as dominant attitude in dreams or extraordinary circumstances, i.e. after drinking alcohol).
,Functions of the psyche
- Irrational functions: the way psyche collects information and orients itself towards outer reality, and how it reacts to
stimulation directly, without rational consideration.
o Sensation: the way the psyche experiences external impulses through senses
o Intuition: unconscious perception on a subliminal level
- Rational function: direct ways of processing information, and indirect ways of reacting on the basis of a rational
decision process
o Thinking: logical and structuring function directed towards objective explanation and understanding of the
world; psyche uses it to interpret what we perceive
o Feeling: evaluative function by which information is judged as good/bad, right/wrong. Basis for individual’s
experience of subjective feelings.
Personality types which develop from combining and handling attitudes and functions
Eight personality types based on dominant attitude and function:
1) Extravert-thinking type: live and perceive the world according to fixed objective rules, while subjective feelings are
repressed. Generally cold and unfeeling, found among scientists and researchers
2) Extravert-feeling type: emotionally highly liable, emotions fluctuate as situations change. Social, experiences intense,
but usually short relationships (actors)
3) Extravert-sensing type: highly pragmatic and realistic. Sensual and geared towards experiencing pleasure
(businessmen).
4) Extravert-intuitive type: always looking for something new, find it difficult to sustain anything. Have difficulty finding
stability and concentrating on anything for long (impulsive inventors, creative innovators)
5) Introvert-thinking type: Highly intellectual, care little about day-to-day existence. Includes people who are ascetic,
philosophical, impractical, socially inhibited and private
6) Introvert-feeling type: Intensely emotional and hypersensitive, but do not display these characteristics outwardly – they
manifest themselves in writing and works of art.
7) Introvert-sensing type: Takes life as it comes, do not display great social involvement. Do not give much of themselves
in interaction, and described as passive, calm and boring
8) Introvert-intuitive type: include eccentric daydreamers who generate new ideas based on ‘visions’. Highly impractical
and asocial, others often do not understand them correctly
Development of personality
Jung concentrates on process of individuation and the transcendent function – baseline of all development
• Individuation: Process whereby infant’s undifferentiated psyche divides into subsystems, which strive to
differentiate themselves fully from the infant-psyche and develop into an integrated system on its own.
• Transcendent function: Refers to how a person’s development of a synthesis between the opposed differentiated
systems of the psyche can be achieved in attaining the self – implies integrating opposing aspects of personality into a
whole (self). It leads to revelation of the essential man
The optimal development of the personality
- Optimal development lies in attaining the self, which usually occurs in early middle years of person’s life as a result of
individuation process and transcendent function.
- Occurs when there is a blurring of boundaries between what is conscious and unconscious, and between the individual
and the world, so that the person becomes part of a new and greater union as the opposing processes and forces in the
psyche are synthesised.
- Also found in adapting to the transition from an externally oriented adjustment; when accomplished, and when
psyche’s attitude towards external reality has been consolidated, then psyche can direct its energy towards inner
reality in trying to establish genuine interior union
- Transition from natural to cultural existence is necessary for mental health and optimal development
- Thus, psychic health and mental health are equated with optimal development by Jung
,Views on psychopathology
- Neurotic phenomena should not be regarded exclusively as signs of a sick psyche, but rather as a pathological
exaggeration of normal phenomena. Neurosis can provide a valuable insight into functioning of the psyche, and should
be explored rather than eliminated
- Pathology caused by lopsided development of one part or one system of the psyche (as in neurosis), or fragmentation
of a system when system develops a totally autonomous existence (psychosis), which are caused by blocking or
damming up of libido in one system
- Normality: condition in which corresponding systems exist in a harmonious balance, and is the equivalent of normal
development (a situation which is seldom attained).
Implications & applications
Measurement & research
Four techniques used when gathering data about human functioning:
• Word-association test – list of words read out by researcher to which subject must respond with first word that comes
to mind –reaction time determined by stop watch.
• Dream analysis – dreams reveal archetype of the psyche, show unvarnished natural truth. Interpretations of dreams
enrich people’s conscious rational existence. Analysis of one dream at a time within context of a series of dreams.
• Active imagination – to break through defences of conscious so unconscious can emerge. Concentrate on a fleeting
dream image and note changes the image undergoes.
• Inventories of personality types – Myers-Briggs Type Indicator – instrument of choice for identifying Jung’s personality
types
Psychotherapy
- Process through which patients are enabled to discover their own psyche so that it may be brought to full individuation
in moving towards the attainment of self through counteracting one-sided development.
- Not a one-way process – gives both patient and therapist insight into their own individual personality function via
analysis of the patient
- Condition for therapy: therapist should understand the patient, but first and foremost, him or herself (confrontation
with own psyche).
- 4 important stages in in therapeutic process:
o Confession: forces individuals to acknowledge limitations towards other people, and thereby experience a
catharsis and emotional cleansing by revealing pathogenic secrets in their psyche; leads to bond of
dependence-transference with therapist who prepares the way to the next stage
o Enlightenment: therapists’ interpretations of unconscious material revealed by patient
o Education: patient begins to incorporate into his/her personality the insights of previous stages, and begins
adapting to social environment
o Transformation: only attained by patients with necessary developmental potential. Builds upon previous
stages, assist patient to attain self (transcend psyche toward self).
Religion
- Jung recognised the importance of religion for human existence in the particular sense of faith in and worship of a god.
- Each individual should find his/her own cultural way to religious expression, and no one religion or god is more valid
than another.
Interpretations & handling of aggression
- Regarded aggression as a function of the shadow, and individuals’ psyche will determine whether it is expressed in
constructive or destructive behaviour
- Ascribe destructive behaviour to a shadow that has been repressed or inadequately channelled.
, CHAPTER 5: THE INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY OF ADLER
- Feelings of inferiority and compensation (attempt to make up for a real/imagined weakness) are central concepts
- Believed quest for superiority/perfection (pursuit to become a complete human being) is what drives human behaviour
View of the person
- Holistic: a proper understanding of personality cannot be achieved by studying components of personality separately
(does not distinguish between structural, dynamic, and developmental concepts)
- Teleological (behaviour is goal-directed) point to explain behaviour – sees human functioning as striving towards a goal
in a purposeful way
- Striving for superiority – overriding goal of all human functioning, and is expressed in two ways:
o To serve the individual as a striving for power
o To serve the society as a striving for well-being of society/social interest
- Each person works out and strives towards their goal using their own methods – to a certain extent determines their
lifestyle
- Fictional finalism: individual’s creation of fictitious goals that direct their behaviour, as reflected in their own unique
lifestyles; human beings have considerable freedom to determine their own destinies
- People can set goals, that will have a major influence on their lives, even if those goals are unrealistic or unattainable
- Individuals are naturally geared to attain superiority or perfection, but each individual creates their own goals
- Actualising tendency: individuals’ striving to fulfil their genetically determined potential
- Striving for superiority: tendency to compensate for one’s weaknesses, and become more than one’s potential
determines
- Person is a master of their own destiny, who determine their lifestyle according to their own fictitious goals
- Environmental and constitutional factor acknowledged, but subordinate to goal-directedness and creative ability to
identify own goals
Structure of personality
- Personality: a whole that functions to achieve self-determined goals
- Individual has certain constitutional attributes and a creative self, which, in interaction with the social environment,
determine how an individual develops and the goals they strive for
Constitutional attributes
- Set of genetically determined attributes – not decisive in an individual’s direction and nature of development
- A potential, that in interaction with social environment and creative self, play a role in development
- Most important aspects are physical/organic weaknesses people are born with or acquire, that the creative self
attempts to compensate for
Social environment
- A general sense of inferiority develops due to a child’s first social interaction, which is present throughout life (feeling
small and dependent on parents)
- These feelings are not genetically determined
- All growth and development results from attempts to compensate feelings of inferiority, and strive for superiority
The creative self
- Humans have the ability to be creative by forming their own life goals and how to achieve them
- It is a capability, not a structural part of personality
- Constitution and social environment do not limit development, as individual can use them in creative ways
The lifestyle
- Establishing goals in life, and striving to achieve them
- Four types of lifestyle identified by Adler:
