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Begrippenlijst Development, Learning and Behaviour
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Samenvatting ontwikkelings- en onderwijspsychologie
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Chapter 1; An introduction to child development1955 --> child-development researchers began a study, to find out how biological and
environmental factors influence children’s intellectual, social and emotional growth.
698 children, studied them for 40 years. With parents’ consent.
Results illustrated that biological and environmental factors combine to produce child
development.
Children who experienced prenatal or birth complications were more likely than others to
develop physical handicaps, mental illness and learning difficulties. But whether to develop
those depended on their home environment. Parents’ income, education, mental health,
relationship between parents.
Reasons to learn about child development
Understanding how children develop can improve child rearing (NL = opvoeding), promote
the adoption of wiser social policies regarding children’s welfare and answer basic questions
about human nature.
Raising children
How to help children control anger? Spanking (NL = slaan) makes the problem worse. The
more often parents spanked their kindergartners (NL = kleuters), the more often the same
children argued, fought and acted inappropriately at school. This held true for blacks &
whites and held true above and beyond the effects of other relevant factors.
Effective alternatives:
- Expressing sympathy
- Help finding positive alternatives to express feelings
- Time-outs
- Turtle technique
Knowledge of child-development research can be helpful to everyone involved in the care of
children.
Choosing social policies
A reason to learn about child development is to be able to make informed decisions about
the wide variety of social-policy questions that affect children in general.
Issue example 1: Whether playing violent video games makes children and adolescents more
aggressive. Ferguson used a statistical method meta-analysis, for combining the results from
independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them. This analysis indicated that
the effect of playing violent video games on children and adolescents’ aggression was
minimal/ not a major cause.
Such analysis are useful in deciding whether the benefits of preventing potentially harmful
activities outweigh the costs of impinging on people’s freedom to do what they want.
Issue example 2: How much trust to put in preschoolers’ courtroom testimony (NL =
getuigenis). What can be done to promote reliable testimony form young children and to
avoid leading them to report experiences that never occurred? In response to questions,
34% of the children affirmed at least one of the social workers’ believes. One important
finding is that when 3- to 5-year-olds are not asked leading questions, their testimony is
accurate, though they leave out a great deal of information. When prompted by leading
,questions, young children’s testimony is inaccurate. In addition, realistic props increase
inaccurate claims.
In addition to helping courts obtain more accurate testimony from young children, such
research-based conclusions illustrate how knowledge of child development can inform social
policies more generally.
Understanding human nature
A reason to study child development is to better understand human nature --> infancy and
childhood. Studying infants and young children offers an opportunity to learn what people
are like before they are affected by family and society. Nativists argue that evolution has
created many remarkable capabilities that are present even in early infancy, such as
understanding basic properties of physical objects, plants, animals and other people.
Empiricists argued that infants possess general learning mechanisms that allow them to
learn a great deal quickly, but that infants and young children lack the capabilities that
nativists attribute to them.
Scientists have methods that enable us to observe, describe and explain the process of
development and thus deepen our understanding of how we become who we are (Box 1.1).
Box 1.1 A closer look; the Romanian adoption study
A way in which research can increase understanding of human nature comes from studies of
how children’s ability to overcome the effects of early maltreatment is affected by its timing;
when in the child’s life the maltreatment begins and ends.
Example: children whose early life was spent in horribly inadequate orphanages in Romania.
Children had no contact with caregivers. When adopted, they were malnourished (NL =
ondervoed) and belonged to the lowest 3% of their age in terms of height, weight and head.
They were intellectual disabled and socially immature. Research: 150 Romain children at age
of 6, compared to 150 British adopted children. Romain children adopted before 6 moths
were the same as the British children, but Romain children adopted between 6- and 24-
months weight less and their intellectual deficts (NL = tekorten) were also high. They had
also abnormal social behaviour. The difference in mental health problems increased
between ages 15 and 23 years. Also abnormal brain activity occurred --> low levels of neural
activity in the amygdala, a brain area involved in emotional reactions.
These findings reflect a basic principle of child development that is relevant to many aspects
of human nature: The timing of experiences influences their effects.
Historical foundations of the study of child development
Early philosophers’ views of children’s development
Plato and Aristotle were interested in how children are influenced by nature and the nurture
they receive. Both believed that the long-term welfare of society depended on the proper
raising of children. Careful upbringing was essential because children’s basic nature would
otherwise lead to rebellious. Plato viewed rearing of boys as a challenge and emphasized
self-control and discipline as the most important goals of education. Aristotle agreed but he
was more concerned with fitting child rearing to the needs of the individual.
Plato believed that children have innate (NL = aangeboren) knowledge. Aristotle believed
that all knowledge comes from experience and that the mind of an infant is like a blackboard
with nothing written.
,John Locke, like Aristotle, viewed the children as a tabula rasa, whose development largely
reflects the nurture provided by the child’s parents and society. The most important goal is
character. “Authority should be relaxed as fast as their age, discretion and good behavior
could allow it.”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that children learn primarily from their own spontaneous
interactions with objects and people. He believed parents and society should give children
maximum freedom form the beginning. Children should not receive any formal education
before the age of 12.
Kagan (2000) concluded that children have an innate moral sense, encompassing five
abilities that even our closest primate relatives lack. Including the ability to infer the
thoughts and feelings of others, to reflect on past actions and to understand negative
consequences could be avoided.
Social reform movements
Were devoted to improve children’s lives by changing the conditions in which they lived.
During the industrial revolution children worked as poorly paid laborers. The effort of the
study what a law forbidding employment of children younger than 10.
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Darwin was interested in child development. Because of his article, such intensive studies of
individual children’s growth continue to be a distinctive feature of the modern field of child
development.
Enduring themes in child development
The modern study of child development begins with a set of fundamental questions.
Everything else (theories, concepts, research methods, data) is part of the effort to answer
the questions. There are 7 questions the most important for research:
1) How do nature and nurture together shape development (Nature/nurture);
2) How do children shape their own development (The active child);
3) In what ways is development continuous, and in what ways is it discontinuous
(Continuity/ discontinuity);
4) How does change occur? (Mechanisms of change);
5) How does the sociocultural context influence development? (The sociocultural
context);
6) How do children become so different from one another? (Individual differences);
7) How can research promote children’s well-being? (Research and children’s welfare).
1. Nature and Nurture: How do nature and nurture together shape
development
Nature = our biological endowment, the genes we receive from our parents.
Nurture = The environments, both physical and social, that influence our development.
All human characteristics are created through the joint workings of nature and nurture, that
is, through the constant interaction of our biology and our environment. Developments ask
how nature and nurture work together to shape development.
Studies show that the genome (complete set of hereditary information) influences behaviors
and experiences. The discovery that behaviors and experiences can influence the genome by
, proteins that turns genes on and off, is called epigenetics, the study of stable changes in
gene expression that are mediated by the environment.
Evidence for the enduring epigenetic impact of early experiences and behaviors comes from
research on methylation, a biochemical process that reduces expression of a variety of
genes and is involved in regulating reactions to stress.
2. The active child: how do children shape their own development?
Children’s own actions contribute to their development. This can be seen in a multitude of
areas including attention, language use and play. Infants shape their own development
through selective attention. Even 1-month-olds choose their moms face over a strangers
face. Once children begin to speak, their contribution to their own development becomes
more evident. For example, toddlers talk when they are alone in the room.
Young children’s fantasy play seems to make an especially large contribution to their
knowledge of themselves and other people.
3. Continuity/ discontinuity: in what ways is development continuous/
discontinuous?
Continuous = process of small changes.
Discontinuous = occasional, sudden changes. Researchers start from a common observation:
children of different ages seem qualitatively different. A conversation-of-liquid-quantity
problem is a classic technique designed to test children’s level of thinking.
Stage theories --> development occurs in a progression of distinct age-related stages. A
child’s entry into a new stage happens suddenly.
Cognitive development --> Jean Piaget’s theory; the development of thinking and reasoning.
Between birth and adolescents, children go through four stages of cognitive growth.
Many researchers have concluded that most developmental changes are gradual rather than
sudden and that development occurs skill by skill rather than in a broadly unified way.
Figure 1.3
4. Mechanisms of change: how does change occur?
What are the mechanisms that produce the remarkable changes that children undergo with
age and experience? Mechanisms share the goal of producing increasingly precise accounts
of the process that produce an outcome of interest. Developmental mechanisms can be
behavioral, neural or genetic. Interesting analysis involves the role of brain activity, genes
and learning experiences in the development of effortful attention, involving voluntary
control of emotions and thoughts.
When people are controlling thoughts and emotions, brain activity is intense in connections
between the limbic area and the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex.
Studies have examined the genetic mechanisms that influence brain activity during effortful
attention and the way in which those genetic mechanisms influence the effects of parenting.
Specific genes have been found to influence the production of key neurotransmitters
(chemicals involved in communication among braincells). Variation in those genes among
children are associated with variations in the quality of performance on tasks that require
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