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Summary Psychology 243 - Fundamentals of Social Research
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Fundamentals of Social Research MethodsPsychology
243
Notes
Sune-Mari Koekemoer
,CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Different methods of acquiring knowledge ........................................................................................ 5
Non-Scientific Methods of Acquiring Knowledge ............................................................................................... 5
Scientific Method and its properties .................................................................................................................. 6
Assumptions of science .................................................................................................................................. 7
Properties of scientific research ......................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Scientific method applied to social reality ........................................................................................ 10
Distinction between natural and social sciences .............................................................................................. 10
Relationship between social sciences and natural sciences ......................................................................... 10
Adequacy of positivist approach to scientific methods in studying social phenomena ............................... 10
Relationship between facts and theory ............................................................................................................ 10
Quantitative, Qualitative and the mixed-method approaches......................................................................... 12
Quantitative .................................................................................................................................................. 12
Qualitative .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Mixed-methods approach ............................................................................................................................ 12
Comarison of quantitative and qualitative research .................................................................................... 12
Developing theory from facts ........................................................................................................................... 13
Relationship between facts, problems, hypotheses, models and theory......................................................... 13
Process of Knowledge Acquisition ................................................................................................................ 13
Steps in Scientific Research .............................................................................................................................. 14
Quantitative Research Process ..................................................................................................................... 14
Qualitative Research process ....................................................................................................................... 15
Mixed-Method Research .............................................................................................................................. 16
Chapter 5: The Types of Research ....................................................................................................................... 17
Ways of Classifying Research ............................................................................................................................ 17
1. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 17
2. Research aim ....................................................................................................................................... 17
3. Primary v Secondary Research ............................................................................................................ 17
4. Demands of the research question ..................................................................................................... 17
Quantiative, Qualitative, and mixed-Method research .................................................................................... 18
Basic and Applied Research .............................................................................................................................. 18
Exploratory, descriptive, correlational and explanatory research ................................................................... 19
Exploratory research..................................................................................................................................... 19
Descriptive research ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Correlational research .................................................................................................................................. 19
Explanatory research .................................................................................................................................... 19
1
, Criteria for selection of research type .......................................................................................................... 20
Demonstrating causality ................................................................................................................................... 20
Potential errors in causal explanation .......................................................................................................... 20
Testing a causal hypothesis .......................................................................................................................... 20
Examples of good research questions .......................................................................................................... 21
Research and the internet ................................................................................................................................ 22
Chapter 6: Research questions and variables ..................................................................................................... 23
Formulation of the Research Question............................................................................................................. 23
Concepts, variables, and constants .................................................................................................................. 23
Identification of the variables ........................................................................................................................... 23
Conceptual and operational definitions ........................................................................................................... 24
Hypothesis formulation .................................................................................................................................... 25
Replication .................................................................................................................................................... 26
Disconfirmation ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Chapter 10: Research planning and design ......................................................................................................... 27
What is research design? .................................................................................................................................. 27
Focus of research .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Unit of analysis ................................................................................................................................................. 27
The Time Dimension ......................................................................................................................................... 28
Types of Research Design ................................................................................................................................. 28
Pre-experimental designs ................................................................................................................................. 29
One-Shot Case Study .................................................................................................................................... 29
Pre-test/Post-test design .............................................................................................................................. 29
Intact group comparison design ................................................................................................................... 30
Quasi-Experimental Designs ............................................................................................................................. 30
Contrasted group design .............................................................................................................................. 30
Cohort designs .............................................................................................................................................. 31
Pre-Test/Post-Test Cohort Design ................................................................................................................ 31
Time-Series Design ....................................................................................................................................... 31
Experimental Designs ....................................................................................................................................... 31
Randomisation .............................................................................................................................................. 31
Placebo Control Group ................................................................................................................................. 32
Matching ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Pre-Test/Post-Test control design .................................................................................................................... 32
Weakness of the Design ............................................................................................................................... 33
Post-Test-Only Control Group Design ............................................................................................................... 33
Factorial Designs ........................................................................................................................................... 34
2
, Developing a research design ........................................................................................................................... 34
Summary of sources of bias in research design ................................................................................................ 34
History and Maturation ................................................................................................................................ 34
Regression towards the mean ...................................................................................................................... 34
Test Effect ..................................................................................................................................................... 35
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Experiment Mortality ................................................................................................................................... 35
Reactive Effects ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Selection Bias ................................................................................................................................................ 35
Relationship between internal and external validity ........................................................................................ 35
Chapter 11: Sampling ........................................................................................................................................... 37
The Purpose and Types of Sampling ................................................................................................................. 37
Sampling Theory ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Advantages of Sampling ............................................................................................................................... 38
Main Sampling Concepts .................................................................................................................................. 38
A. A Well-Defined Population .................................................................................................................. 38
B. The Sample .......................................................................................................................................... 39
Probability Sampling for Quantitative Research ............................................................................................... 39
Simple Random Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 39
Interval or Systematic Sampling ................................................................................................................... 40
Stratified Random Sampling ......................................................................................................................... 40
Multistage Probability Sampling ................................................................................................................... 41
Non-Proabbility Sampling for Quantitative Research ....................................................................................... 41
Convenience / Availibility Sampling.............................................................................................................. 41
Purposive or Judgemental Sampling ............................................................................................................ 41
Quota Sampling ............................................................................................................................................ 42
Cluster Sampling ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Other Sampling Possibilities ............................................................................................................................. 42
Independent versus Related/Depenent Samples ......................................................................................... 42
Sample Size: How Large Should a Sample Be? ................................................................................................. 42
Sampling Errors and Related Problems ............................................................................................................ 43
Sampling for Qualitative Research ................................................................................................................... 43
Convenience / Availability Sampling ............................................................................................................. 44
Snowball Sampling (Chain/Referral Sampling) ............................................................................................. 44
Qualitative Approach to Purposive or Judgemental Sampling ..................................................................... 44
Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling ............................................................................................................... 44
Critical Case Sampling ................................................................................................................................... 44
3
, Maximum Variations Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 44
Quota Sampling ............................................................................................................................................ 44
Combination or Mixed Purposeful Sampling ................................................................................................ 45
Sampling Process and Sample Size: When is Enough, Enough? ....................................................................... 45
Importance of Good Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 13: Ensuring the Quality of Data ........................................................................................................... 46
Quantitative Research: Reliability and Validity of Measurements ................................................................... 46
Reliability .......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Test-Retest Reliability ................................................................................................................................... 47
Equivalent-Form Reliability ........................................................................................................................... 47
Inter-Rater Reliability .................................................................................................................................... 48
Internal Consistency ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Estimated Internal Consistency .................................................................................................................... 48
Validity .............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Content Validity ............................................................................................................................................ 49
Criterion-Related Validity ............................................................................................................................. 49
Construct Validity ......................................................................................................................................... 50
Convergent Validity ...................................................................................................................................... 50
Face Validity .................................................................................................................................................. 50
Balancing Reliability with Validity ..................................................................................................................... 50
Qualitative Equivalents of Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................ 50
Qualitative Research: Ensuring Trustworthiness .......................................................................................... 51
Tools for Increasing Research Trustworthiness ............................................................................................ 51
scientific Riguor in Mixed-Methods Research .................................................................................................. 51
Quantative, Qualitative and Mixed Method Approaches ............................................................................. 51
Chapter 16: Research Findings and Dissemination ............................................................................................. 53
Types of Errors and Mistakes............................................................................................................................ 53
Sources of Error ................................................................................................................................................ 54
Drawing Conlusions .......................................................................................................................................... 56
General Research Findings ........................................................................................................................... 56
Suggestions and Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 56
Ways of Disseminating Findings ................................................................................................................... 57
Organisation of Research Report .................................................................................................................. 57
Guidelines for Writing................................................................................................................................... 59
4
,CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENT METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
Study of the ways of knowing about the world = epistemology
NON-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
Method of Mystical Intuitive
authority method method
Conventional Rationalistic Empirical
wisdom method method
• METHOD OF AUTHORITY
o Children: first source of knowledge is parents/caregivers
o Rely on knowledge and wisdom of prominent/significant people who are recognised as
having a better grasp of their environment
o Especially present in societies where formal education is minimal
o Authority figures might rely on certain strategies to justify and preserve their position
▪ May mask own ignorance w/ impressive rituals, professional jargon, or by
emphasising the uniqueness of their position
• MYSTICAL METHOD
o Correctness of the knowledge is assumed to reside in a supernatural source
o ‘Knowledge producers’ are regarded as authorities due to their ability to transmit the truth
or knowledge imparted to them by supernatural forces
o Whether a person’s authority in knowledge is recognised because of their position, or
because of their presumed supernatural powers, their credibility is strongly related to the
level of education and general knowledge of the audience
• INTUITIVE METHOD
o People sometimes make judgements about the world based on what ‘feels’ right for them
o May not always be able to explain their feelings
o Others may not come to similar conclusions in the same situation, as their intuitive feeling
may differ
o Depends on the individual and their personal understanding of the issue
o Not transparent, and cannot be communicated easily to others
o Decisions/conclusions = not easily replicable
• CONVENTIONAL WISDOM
o Common sense understandings of the world that are commonly accepted as being true
5
, o Often contradictory
o No systematic way of determining which statements are accurate
• RATIONALISTIC METHOD
o Based on human reason
o Humans can think logically and thus discover laws through intellectual processes
o Made little progress in the social sciences
• EMPIRICAL METHOD
o Opposite of rationalistic method
o Facts that are observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge
o Objectivity + only what is observable = KNOWLEDGE!
o Interpretations of observations and speculations about relationships between facts
introduce subjectivity and are therefore seen as distortions of the data
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ITS PROPERTIES
• Quantitative research:
▪ First step to knowing is a description of the object, relationship or situation
▪ Object of study must be accurately depicted
▪ Empirical method of objective observation
o Explanation:
▪ Of the relationship between the descried fact
o Leads to the formulation of a natural/social law
o Prediction of future events under well-defined conditions
o Correctness of explanation must be tested
▪ Confronting it with reality
▪ Using empirical approach
o Correct explanations leading to the ability to predict events should yield intelligent
intervention, which enables changes to occur that improve a situation
Object: study
Description of
must be Explanation
object
depicted
Correctness Formulation of
Prediction
tested law
• Qualitative research
o Researcher is concentrating on the observation and recording of the events under study
o No a priori explanations are given and thus no expectations or predictions can be tested
o May be expected that some explanations will be found at the end, on the basis of the data
collection and analysis
6
, • Science can be defined as the building of knowledge obtained by the use of a particular methodology,
the scientific one
• Acquiring knowledge (scientific research) = systematic investigation of a question, phenomenon or
problem using certain principles
• All that matter is their common method
• Some issues do not allow for the scientific investigation
• Imperative to specify the main characteristic of the scientific method
ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
Existence of natural and social laws
• Without this assumption some of the main aims of scientific research (explanation, prediction and possibility to act)
would not be attainable
• Laws are assumed to exist independently of the observer
Laws can be discovered by human beings
• Instead they are the result of observations of certain regularities = indicate that natural events proceed according to our
expectations based on our understanding of those events
Natural phenomena have natural causes
• No unexplainable supernatural forces are needed to explain the way nature functions
New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially
• The new under-standings yielded by these advances often demonstrate the limitations of previous knowledge
Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence
• Specific and commonly accepted rules that need to be adhered to for something to constitute evidence
Scientific statements must be distinguished from common-sense statements
• Common sense is often characterised by contradictory statements
• Preconditions for the validity of statements are not specified due to lack of systematic investigation
Scientific observation is objective
• Result of the observation is independent of a single observer
Scientific observation is systematic
• All possibilities are considered one at a time, in logical order
• Not always possible to observe every phenomenon/all aspects systematically
• One can only predict that an event will take place if one knows ALL the conditions and circumstances which cause the
event
• Have to be content w/ a probability statement
• In short, the object and the method of investigation will determine the type of causation that can be expressed, and thus
the type of prediction
7
, PROBABILISTIC EXPLANATIONS: if all
conditions are satisfied, the event will occur
more often than if some of these conditions
are not met (concede uncertainty)
PROPERTIES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Empirical Systematic and logical Replicable and transmittable
Reductive Falsifiable
1. EMPIRICAL
• Aim is to know and understand reality
• Each step is based on observation
• Reality exists outside of the observer
• Quantitative methods
i. Use variety of tools to help scientist be more detached about research
• Qualitative methods
i. Focus on acknowledging, understanding and allowing for the biases in a transparent
manner
2. SYSTEMATIC AND LOGICAL
• Logical predictions cannot be made before a description has been given and an explanation
of the observed phenomenon found
• An analysis of the different variables involved must be undertaken
3. REPLICABLE AND TRANSMITTABLE
• Anyone placed in the same circumstances can observe the same event and arrive at the
same explanation and prediction
• Possible to communicate each step of the research and transmit the acquired knowledge
• Science is a transparent process that invites criticism and skepticism
8
, 4. REDUCTIVE
• Grasping the main relationships between the laws, the complexity of reality is reduced
• Controlling for many variables, one nearly always reduces the complexity of reality
• Reductionism: method of considering only the essential and necessary properties, variables
or aspects of the problem
• Reductionism has to be used w/ great care as it can lead to bias
• Selection of variables excluded may be based on false assumptions = some NB variables may
not be taken into consideration
5. FALSIFIABLE
• Be stated in such a way that can be demonstrated to be false
• Claim must be testable – it must withstand empirical scrutiny
• Scientific theory should not only tell us what should happen but what should not happen
9
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