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Critical Thinking in Communication StudiesIntroduction
Class 1 – Week of Oct 1:
Pre-recorded video each Friday before class starts. Class itself: Q&A, quiz (preparation exam!!!!)
GRADING
20/20 = 100% ORAL exam!
NOVEMBER: receive 20-30 questions → prepare for exam!
EXAM: 2 main questions! → fail one = fail exam
+ some additional questions to see if you actually got it. See how far he can push you → the
MORE questions he asks, the better = means you know more.
GOOD sign if prof engages in discussion with you on exam.
Critical vs Mainstream Thinking?
S4: What is critical thinking?
S5-8: (?) mainstream: assumes to learn things objectively through facts. Marxists disagree:
positivism = instrumental rationality. Instrumental means it serves a purpose, serving a purpose
means it serves certain interests.
S9: Traits of positivism: sociologism (??), empiricism, scientism (through science, humankind can take
control over own destiny BUT e.g. by looking at climate change, can see how we are far from that),
naturalism, progressivism.
S11: Positivism = model after natural science = can make truth claims interpretivism: only thing
we know is what we think. SO: study how we make meaning.
Distinguish positivism from interpretivism on 2 stances: 1) epistemology: reflecting on what science
can do & what it is. SO: science objective or subjective? 2) philosophical/social theoretical: because
science can only be objective, it always conveys a vision on the world & behind that: relations of power
that are hidden.
Critical realism and Constructionism
= 2 ways to look at interpretivism.
14 5: Social constructivism: all human activities – also science – are contingent, aka: contained in
social practice, part of its environment.
,S15: Critical realism: there is something as the real world, but we can’t observe it how it is, because
we’re biased.
Common in both visions: accept & stress that different competing versions of reality are possible.
S17: Focus on power-relations: critical science isn’t critical ABOUT science, but about the interests
being served THROUGH science. Therefore also need to be socially engaged.
Two schools in communication studies
S21: Manipulation thesis: also about domination (cf. repression thesis), but more subtle).
Reception thesis: counter-hegemonic or even revolutionary interpretations.
Last 3 theses focus much more on human agency & human’s capacity to resist. 1st 3: focus on
structural aspects of society & relations of dominance.
S22: Political economy ties much more into critical realism.
S24: e.g. another tension field: interpretivism vs. positivism.
Will be discussed in detail last lecture, but summary:
Objectivism: our mind – agency – is mostly determined by circumstances (e.g. social structure,
historical circumstances…), we’re determined by environment. subjectivism: much more room for
human agency & free will (although definitely also constrained by circumstances), subjects are the
makers/influencers of our environment.
Objectivism Subjectivism
Environment > Free will > Environment
Focus on conflict: inherent to certain or all social systems. consensus.
S25: prof added ‘contradiction’ because some structural Marxist theories see history articulated as
contradiction and in which human agency plays little role.
Mainstream theory generally spans very wildly but could also e.g. be leaning much more to objectivism.
S26: self-contemplation: seeing themselves as only possible approach, self-indulgence.
S27: they became more focused on giving critique on the other than being critical itself, or looking for
complementarity.
S28: but it IS possible for them to co-exist. As will be seen in next 5 lectures.
Introduction to the Political Economy of Communication
,S4: 3 parts this lecture: 1) 2 different meanings of political economy → go into the 2 different
meanings of them in 2) & 3).
S5: /
S6: political economy as economic policy is the original definition, it is less used today. But e.g. there’s
still a magazine today called ‘political economy’, that’s actually only about economic policy. 2nd
definition is more inspired by Marxist theory, saying that politics is mostly determined by (underlying)
economic relations.
S7: to try to understand this dual concept better, we can also go back to the origin of the word: in
which economy is coming from ‘Oikos’, which is household, and Polis (politics) means city (state). SO:
in origin, political economy means the knowledge of household of the state. → origin? →
S8: 17th-18thC = prior to 19thC we had ruling absolute monarchs & nobility governing the economy SO
➔ there was no distinction between politics & economy.
S9: i.e. what is political economy about? → about physical well-being of humans as far as it can be
produced by government.
S10: industrialisation would render the term ‘political economy’ obsolete, thus, 2 new theories would
emerge. 1) classical economy = still mainstream economy 2) oppositional economy = reaction against
the consequences of state retreat of economy.
S11: 2.1 what is classical economy and how did it evolve into neo-classical economy?
S12: /
S13: being born at the start of industrialization, A. Smith witnesses the growing division of labour,
therefor also increasing efficiency. → has a number of effects on economy →
S14: get a specialized production (= factories) and these factories also are spread over different
geographical areas → stimulation / need for growing trade & commerce. = between producers in
production chain but also between producers and consumers in different geographical markets.
Smith’s observation of these growing markets is that state
should not intervene! E.g. prices regulate themselves
because of supply & demand.
S15: SO: Smith lays foundation of modern economic
theory = classic economy → laissez-fair, laissez-aller. =
origins of political economy as government policy.
S16: also: Smith did NOT define/describe these laws of
supply & demand (which are foundation of marginalist
model), they were only defined at the turn of 19thC. He DID
theorize about markets that laid the foundations for these
theories.
S17: 2.2 NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMY:
S18: see curve: if prices are high, there will be a low
demand, but if prices decrease, then the demand for products increase. = how we are all as consumers.
→ therefore, if there’s increasing demand, producers will increase production. At some point of these
2 curves, there’s an intersection, and in that point there’s equilibrium. How is that reached? → that’s
what the marginalist model is about.
S19: prices go down → increased production, to the extent that people are willing to pay. Because, if
they’re not willing to pay, then producers won’t produce if there’s no interest. I.e. if the profit goes
down, producers are not interested in producing anymore = marginalist model! Producers side: if the
cost of producing one more unit (marginal cost) is equal or lower than the profit, then they will stop
, producing. Demand side: marginal utility: people will continue buying a product as long as it is
useful for them. E.g. the prices are low enough for you to buy a tv for your bedroom and living room,
that has enough value. But there’s not enough value regarding the price for you to buy an extra one
for the garage. → SO: producers and suppliers will adjust their behaviour in relation to prices and
quantity produced. And at some point equilibrium is reached = most efficient economic outcome =
satisfaction is maximized at minimum cost.
S20: PROBLEM with the model: assumes that 1) all markets are in an equilibrium. And it also assumes
that 2) all markets work without disruption. That’s also the reason why the state has to retreat from
the market. BUT in real life: if there’s a disruption in 1 of these markets, it will affect all other markets.
& Conditions have never been met.
S21: also: assumption that 3) there’s perfect competition. But: real life: often NOT many players; e.g.
media markets in the western world are often ruled by only 3-5 players. These are powerful players
who have the power influence smaller players and therefor disrupt the market.
Also should be rational, which means pursuing the self-interest, but often don’t do that. E.g.
advertising: creates wants that often doesn’t corresponds with needs = disruption mechanism created
by market itself.
Also: transparency: often not the case, often secrets towards public or each other to increase
competition.
= these are basics, there are much more competitions.
S22: laissez-faire doctrine & assumptions formulated by Smith and other classical economists can now
be called naïve. BUT: neo-classical economists have adapted their laissez-faire doctrine to the
contemporary world. SO: they have adapted theory to allow for certain government intervention:
ONLY there to correct market failure (because culture would not gain profit, there’d be market failure,
but since it’s important for society, we give subsidies), to create market conditions (anti-trust policies:
prevent concentration in the media), protect against social injustice (e.g. in a large media market there
might be tendency to be discriminating against a race → impose rules), participant (very rarely allowed
by neo-classical economists, but when government acts as a provider).
S23: rational choice theory = very similar to neo-classical thinking: assumes that political market will
balance out the individual interests of all people, it assumes that all people are rational, equal,
participate in political debate and they reach a consensus (i.e. the point of equilibrium). In this thinking,
media are seen as neutral players. BUT: we know that these assumptions are rarely met, people are
rarely rational → alternative models have been found:
S24: pluralist theory: there’s no perfect balance between the (interests of) different groups,
rationality is also bounded, but reasonable debate is possible within democratic systems. → these
political theories transposed to media: pluralist media theories.
S25: 3.1. Marxist economic theory
S26: /
S27: obvious: different time lived in, different starting points.
S28: is not so important for us, also since his historical theory often wasn’t right, more important →
S29: Marxist economic theory: mode of production = production paradigm in society: includes
division of labour and property and control. 2nd = important because it includes relations of power
into economics.
S30: labour theory of value: addresses the question: what is the relation between the exchange value
(money) and the use value (what do you use it for).
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