This is a summary of everything in A level politics. It includes all AQA specification. Such as UK Politics, US Politics and Ideologies of conservatism, liberalism and socialism.
Note: This does not include the optional choices of nationalism, anarchism or feminism.
Nature and sources of the British Constitution
Development of the UK Constitution - used to be centralised with the monarch.
Beginnings
● Begun with the Magna Carta 1215. No one is above the law and right to fair
trial.
● Bill of Rights - Monarch's power is reliant on consent of parliament, set up
frequent elections, freedom of speech in parliament, free elections.
● Act of Settlement - only a protestant could become monarch.
● Acts of the Union - established the union of Scotland, Ireland and England to
form Great Britain.
Constitutional Development
● 1911 + 1949 Acts of Parliament - 1911 act prevents Lords from delaying
money bills and prevents them from delaying other bills for more than 2 years.
1949 act reduced the period to 1 year.
● 1972 European Communities Act - UK joined EU. gave EU law precedence
over UK law. Brexit repealed this.
Nature of the UK Constitution
● Uncodified - not written down and made of multiple sources.
● Parliamentary sovereignty - parliament is supreme and the ultimate authority. No
parliament can bind its successor. Supreme legislative body.
● Unentrenched - easily changed through an act of parliament.
● Unitary - all power is centralised in parliament. Diluted due to devolution in modern
times.
● Rule of law - everyone is subject to the law and held accountable. Fair trial.
Sources of the UK Constitution
● Statute law - legislation through parliament. Etc; 2005 Constitutional Reform Act
● Common law - customs and judicial precedent. Etc; Royal Prerogative
● Conventions - customs and practices accepted as the way of doing things. Etc; PM is
the leader of the largest party in parliament.
● Authoritative works - books or written guides. Etcl Walter Bagehot’s guide to the
English Constitution.
● Treaties - signed agreements with other countries. Etc; NATO
Rights
in the UK
● Magna Carta - Stopped monarchy abusing power.
● Bill of Rights - more limits on monarchs. Free speech in parliament, elections.
● European Convention on Human Rights - all UK government actions needed to
comply with the ECHR.
● European Court of Justice - protected rights of UK workers.
● Data Protection Act, Human Rights Act (Conservatives want to replace with the
British Bill of Rights), Equality Act, Freedom of Information Act
Pressure groups such as Unlock Democracy (Charter88) and the National Council f
for Civil Liberties to ensure freedoms and rights of individuals.
, 3
Individual & Collective Rights
All laws passed must comply with the Human Rights Act and be enforced by judges. The
Human Rights Act protects individuals rights. Etc; After 9/11, the government wished to
detain terror suspects without trial which was ruled against by the Law Lords as it was seen
as discrimination.
Constitutional Changed Since 1997
Changing Compositions of the House of Lords
Demand for reform
● Demands for devolution to Scotland and to fix problems in Northern Ireland.
● New Labour in 1997 under Tony Blair promised constitutional reforms.
House of Lords Reform
● The House of Lords Act removed all but 92 hereditary peers. Became a mainly
appointed chamber with peers appointed based on merit.
● Removal or majority hereditary peers made it more legitimate and a professional
body. No one party has a majority. Experts can be appointed. People who can
represent underrepresented groups in society can be appointed.
● Life peerage means they don't have to worry about removal and can make decisions
that are unpopular and so can consider the long term interests of the country.
● Still 92 hereditary peers and so may be outdated. 26 bishops but not representation
for other religions. Party leaders still make political appointments to the Lords.
Remains unelected despite having influence over lawmaking.
Devolution
● 1998 Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales Act. Due to growing demand for
independence and unity in Ireland.
● Devolution in NI resolved tensions in NI after the Good Friday Agreement.
● Still calls for independence in Scotland.
● England’s West Lothian questions where Scottish MPs are able to vote in the House
of Commons on matters only affecting England.
● Barnett Formula - Used to determine funding per head to each part of the UK.
Scotland, Wales and NI receive more money per head than England.
HRA, Constitutional Reform Act & Electoral Reform
Human Rights Act
● 1998 Human Rights Act incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights in
UK law. Freedom to life, fair trial and expression. ECHR requires states to hold free
and fair elections and abolish the death penalty.
● The Supreme Court can strike down secondary legislation that is incompatible with
HRA. For primary legislation they can issue a declaration of incompatibility but not
strike it down.
● Rights of citizens are clearly laid out. 8 fold increase in the number of human rights
cases and claims since the HRA was passed.
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Constitutional Reform Act 2005
● Separated the government and the judiciary.
● Formed a Supreme Court which separated parliament from the judiciary.
● Reformed the appointment process for senior judicial appointments.
● Split the powers of the Lord Chancellor into 3 different roles.
● The Supreme Court was formed to replace the Law Lords as the UK’s highest court
of appeal. Separated parliament from the judiciary.
● Established a Judicial Appointments Commission to appoint candidates solely on
their legal qualifications and ability.
Electoral Reform
● New Labour introduced proportional representation for election in the Scottish
Parliament, Welsh and NI Assemblies.
● 2011 referendum to introduce an alternative vote system which was rejected and a
FPTP remains the system.
● Voting age was lowered to 16 in the Scottish Independence Referendum.
Devolution
● Referendums were held in NI, Scotland and Wales in 1997 for powers to be devolved
to regional assemblies.
● 1998 - Scottish parliament, NI and Welsh Assembly were created. Due to a growing
demand for Scottish independence and a need to unite NI.
● The Good Friday Agreement transformed the situation in NI. Until the collapse of the
power-sharing agreement in 2017.
● Referendum on devolution in England through an elected regional assembly in the
north east of England was rejected.
● Wales - Devolved powers further in 2006, 2014 and 2017. Increased demand due to
imbalance in powers given to Scotland. The Welsh nationalist movement has growing
demand.
● Scotland - 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum only narrowly won by the
unionists. The SNP are more popular now than in 1998.
● Northern Ireland - Brexit process has caused conflict in Ireland and NI.
● England - West Lothian question and Barnett formula.
Constitutional Reform 2010 - 2015
● 2011 Fixed Term Parliament Act set 5 year periods between general elections. Took
away the power of the PM to call a general election when they wished. An election
can only occur if a ⅔ majority of MP’s pass a motion for an early election or if a no
confidence vote is passed. Etc; 2017 Theresa May called a general elections as ⅔
favoured an election.
Reforms Since 2015
● 2016 - further devolution to Scotland including powers over taxes, welfare and income
tax.
● Recall of MP’s Act - constituencies can recall an MP who behaved inappropriately or
misbehaved. 10% need to support.
● 2015 - Conservatives gave more power to larger cities. 2016 - Manchester was given
control of its budget for social care and healthcare.
, 5
Structure and Role of Parliament
Structure and Role of Parliament
Houses of Parliament
House of Commons
● Most members of parliament are called backbenchers. MPs who do not sit in the front
2 benches in the Commons.
● MP’s in the front benches are members of government, cabinet ministers.
● The Speaker is an MP who manages and chairs debates. Elected by MPs.
● Lower house in the bicameral system of the UK. MP’s are elected in a general
election (FPTP).
● 650 Constituencies.
House of Lords
● Life peers, hereditary peers, archbishops and bishops. ‘Lords Temporal.’
● Most are life peers (676). 26 archbishops and bishops.
● Used to be all hereditary peers until the House of Lords Act 1999 which reduced it to
92.
● The HofL appointments committee can appoint members not aligned with a party.
● The PM can appoint members to the Lords through the power of patronage. Etc;
Gordon Brown appointed Lord Sugar.
Functions of the House of Commons
● Providing Ministers
● Scrutiny
● Debate
● Law making
● Representation
Effectiveness of Functions
● 650MPs represent an average constituency size of 75,000 voters. MP’s meet people,
visit local businesses and hold regular surgeries where constituents can discuss their
concerns.
● Private members' bills are introduced by MP’s.
● Scrutiny - PMQs, Committees. Etc; Foreign Affairs select committee.
● Individual ministerial responsibility holds all ministers in government accountable for
their own actions.
● Representation - 52% of MPs over 50. 8% of Mps from ethnic minorities. 23% came
from Oxford and Cambridge.
● Formal opposition days are built into the calendar allowing the opposition to choose
the agenda.
Theories of Representation
● Delegate Theory - elected representative as the mouthpiece of the electorate. Large
minority of verts do not vote and so are not represented in parliament.
● Trustee theory - formulated by Burke. Recognises the wants of their constituents but
relies on their conscience and national interest.
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