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Alle vakken bij de minor psychology and the brain aan de VU
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College 1 Genes and EvolutionPsychology is the scientific study of mind and brain to explain behavior
➔ to predict behavior of yourself, someone else or a group in general
People accept general descriptions of themselves
The genetic basis
● Is it correct to claim that “a violent person has violent genes”?
○ In the 70’s
■ No: Environment → (violent) behavior
■ Violence was an effect of parents en capitalism
■ It was inappropriate to assume genes caused violent behavior
○ In the 90’s
■ Yes: Genes → (violent) behavior
■ Technique allowed genetics studies to be allowed
■ ‘it doesn't matter what parents to, children turn out the way they do
because they do’
○ Today
■ ?: Genes ↔ environment ↔ (violent) behavior
■ General agreement that violent behavior is caused by an interaction
between genes and environment
➔ DNA codes for specific proteins (the exons)
Genes
● Meaningful sections of the DNA molecule
● Govern the cell’s functioning by providing instructions for making proteins (on
ribosomes)
1
,Gene expression
● = Whether a gene is turned on of off; the extent to which a gene is transcribed into a
sequence of amino acids (protein)
● In each cell, some genes are expressed at any point in time and others are not. This
is controlled by the biochemical environment inside the cell
○ The biochemical environment inside the cell is influenced by e.g. the
environment outside the cell, timing in development, the overall environment,
experience and behavior.
○ (als je op de bank ligt zijn je hormonen bijv anders etc → minder
spierweefsel)
Genotype Phenotype
An organism’s specific set of genes the overt traits and behaviors of an
organism
- Phenotype is determined by
genotype x environment
(experience, past en present)
Mom 23 chromosome in the egg + 23 chromosome in the sperm = 46 in de baby
➔ Each gene is paired with another gene
➔ The pairs are located at corresponding positions on pairs of
chromosomes
➔ Allele is one specific variant of a gene
◆ Dominant: show their respect regardless
◆ Recessive: require the other allele to be the same
→ A specific trait or behavior is determined by the interaction between the environment (past
and present) and
1. one gene pair
2. multiple gene pairs: polygenetic inheritance
Where do our parent’s sets of genes come from?
● The genome is shaped by evolution over the years → Darwin’s evolution theory
Evolution by natural selection
● Charles Darwin hypothesized that all modern organisms:
○ are descended from a small set of shared ancestors
○ have merged over time through the process of evolution
The key mechanism of evolution is natural selection, three conditions
1. There is variation among individuals of a population
2. Individuals with a certain trait survive and reproduce at higher rates than others
3. The traits associated with this advantage is passed from parents to offspring
➔ Specific traits will be better represented in the next generation
2
,Organisms differ in genotype and variations in genotype are passed from generation to
generation
What matters is that survival of genes, not the survival of individuals
The evidence for modern evolutionary theory comes from many sources
1. the fossil record
a. Darwin predicted that the world was older than was thought at the time →
which was proved by fossils
b. However there weren't any really old fossils at the time
c. Ultimately in 1953 there were first reports of these really old fossils, but they
were too small to see without a microscoop
d. They also found out fossils could change over time and that there is a specific
order of fossils
2. The resemblance between genomes of various organisms
a. we are similar to apes, chimapees etc
b. Telomere
c. Centromere: where to chromosomes are positions next to each other
d. Chromosome 2 represents a group of 2 different ape chromosomes → the
chromosomes have merged into one in humans
3. Pseudogenes
a. inactive genes that do not produce proteins, but might have in the past. They
might have had a function is our ancestors live but not in ours
b. Glow pseudogene ?? -- belangrijk in the production of the 4 step from glucose
into vitamine C. We still possess the gene but can’t perform the 4th step,
because of a mutation in this gene.
i. probably there is enough food that includes vitamin C so we don't
need the gene anymore
4. Distribution of species across the world
a. Continental islands were once connected to the main island.
b. However there is also a possibility that an island is created by volcanic
eruptions and was never connected to the main island. The species on these
islands were remarkably different than on the mainland.
c. Example Hawaii: mammals, reptiles etc only plants, insects, birds and some
other things. The birds and insects came and mammals didn’t because they
were able to fly.
➔ Despite overwhelming evidence, many people remain skeptical about the theory of
evolution.
◆ Some schools would not teach evolution
It does not follow that evolution that:
➔ somehow improves organisms
◆ it only release an organisms becomes better adapted to the environment
because those adjusted create more offspring
◆ They dont become better, because when the environment changes it might
even be dangerous (think about our love for sweets, once it might have saved
us now it’s dangerous ish)
➔ can only lead to rigid behavioral patterns
3
, ◆ Organisms are surrounded by a dynamic environment, and we are able to
adapt to change and learn and be flexible to the environment
Genes and behavior
Nature (genes) versus Nurture (environment)
➔ The nature nurture debate has become increasingly irrelevant
➔ Instead, there is a continuous interaction between genes and environment
Who we are is determined by how our genes are expressed in distinct environments
● low MAOA vs high MAOA in combination with how you were raised can influence the
convention of violent offenses rate
○ MAOA allele for low MAO activity ↔ severe maltreatment ↔ higher
probability of being convicted of violent crimes
College 2 The Brain and the nervous system
Genes x environment = phenotype (also the parts that are below your skin like the
nervous system)
Central nervous system vs Peripheral nervous system
Building blocks of the nervous system
● The nervous system is made up of two basic kinds of cells
○ Glia (in red)
■ Functie ?
■ Supporting function
○ Neurons (in green)
■ Functie ?
Dendrieten ontvangen informatie
➔ signaal van boven naar beneden (op dit plaatje)
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