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Summary lectures Ethics in Life Sciences (AM_470707)
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This is a summary of all the lectures that were given in the course Ethics in Life Sciences as preparation for the exam.
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Lecture 1: Ethics as design discipline - 10/01/2023Science, technology and innovation (STI) = can help solve problems and be valuable in many
ways, but can also cause (new) problems → ethics can be a facilitator/driver of research, tech
and innovation for good, which minimally requires prevention of future harm.
→ STI in health and life sciences: nanotech, biotech, energy, medical ICT → the direct and
indirect, intended and unintended influences of scientists on the moral states of others is large
→ STI shapes society and society shapes STI.
→ example: leaded fuel and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) was used for car engines, refrigerators,
propellants and solvents, BUT caused depletion of the ozone layer, so it caused an immense
negative effect on human health and the environment → took more than half a century before all
fuels were free of lead due to different values.
Ethics as design principle: societal needs and problems should be the starting point of STI →
moral values should be placed at the heart of STI → ethics is all about (a) translating values into
actions, (b) weighing different stakeholders’ values against each other and (c) morally justifying
one’s judgements and actions.
→ examples of values: affordability - autonomy - sustainability - efficiency - privacy - hygiene →
possible values when designing a car: speed - safety - aesthetics - size - sustainability.
→ there is rarely one unique, correct solution, due to subjectivity, yet one can often distinguish
better from worse solutions.
Ethics = study of deciding how we ought to act → how do you justify your choices? → deals with
morality and values → systematic reflection on morality (values, norms, beliefs) → 3 views:
Thomas Hobbes Acting in accordance with only our self-interest will lead to war, and our lives will be brutish,
(1588-1679) nasty and short → to get out of this state of mind we have to accept the state (Leviathan).
Immanuel Kant Moral behaviour has nothing to do with self-interest, it is an intrinsic desire of mankind, tied
(1724-1804) in with man’s rational nature to act morally correct → we are rational beings.
John Dewey We cannot escape being moral, because morality evolved to be an integrated part of human
(1859-1952) nature and conduct → we evolved into moral beings.
Moral problems = when values, rights, interests and desires of another are at stake or harmed →
morally problematic is not the same as morally rejectable → taking a moral stance means:
carefully considering and deciding whether a morally problematic issue is morally objectionable
or not → almost anything can be a morally pertinent other.
Values = what is or is perceived as good → features: (a) concepts or beliefs, (b) about desirable
end states or behaviors, (c) that transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of
behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance → can be translated into norms.
→ can be vague → FEX. “equality” -> what do we mean when we say “everyone is equal”? Equal
before the judge? Equal opportunities (school, work)? Equal capacities? → so specify values.
Moral spheres: in different contexts, different values are more pertinent and hence different
norms guide our actions in different situations → types of moral spheres:
- Personal: FEX. value = loyalty -> norm = “always help friends and family” → rules for
relations with family and friends.
- Business: FEX. value = sustainability -> norm = “reduce waste and minimize energy usage”
→ value = human dignity and autonomy -> norm = “don’t use slave labor” → rules for
business identity.
- Professional: FEX. values = integrity of animals, objectivity, disinterestedness -> norm =
“always prevent conflicts of interest” → rules for the scientific community.
, - Public: FEX. values = justice, equality -> norm = “don’t kill” → rules for a just society.
→ most interesting values lie at the borders of the moral spheres.
→ moral others in life sciences: plants - animals - crops - human beings - colleagues - farmers -
ecosystems - family - governments - species.
Ethical thinking = thinking beyond one’s inclinations and prejudices → requirements: (a) an open
mind and (b) critical reasoning skills → steps:
- Localize the problem → in the personal, business, professional, and public sphere.
- Consider everything that is relevant → (a) values, rights, interests and desires, (b)
corresponding actors, (c) actions and their (potential) consequences, (d) moral principles.
- Ethical thinking → critical reasoning -> balancing
arguments -> defining a problem → apply the
reason and formulate a judgment.
→ 3 families of ethical reasoning: (picture right) →
1. consequentialism: desired states, whereby costs
and benefits are weighed against each other →
principle of greatest happiness (John Stuart Mill).
a. features: (a) relatively easy to extend moral pertinence to non-humans within the
framework, (b) associated with empiricism.
2. deontology: you have a duty to do the things you do → categorical imperative (Kant).
a. features: (a) anthropocentric, as moral agents exist and in moral situations
respond to free autonomous agents = those obligated to obey moral law, (b) move
beyond empiricism and rationalism, (c) individualistic.
3. virtue ethics: someone can act in a virtuous or non-virtuous manner → people are social
beings and want to contribute to society → a good person is someone who possesses and
lives the virtues (Aristotle) → if we focus on being good people, the right actions follow.
a. features: (a) moral judgements are sensitive to context, (b) our actions shape our
character (the more times we choose to be honest, the more likely we are to be
honest in future situations), (c) humans have a fixed nature.
Lecture 2: Deontology and utilitarianism - 13/01/2023
Example I: two babies are brought in a hospital who need a lot of care and only one baby can get
all the care that is needed, so the other dies → what if the saved life is Louis Pasteur (saved many
lives), a random guy or Adolf Hitler? → would it then be a good act?
Example II: in the summer of 2022 there was famine in the horn of Africa → Kate, Karl and Karim
respond similarly, but for different reasons.
- Kate felt it as her duty to help the people suffering from famine.
- Karl had some cash in his bank account and did not even notice it was there, so other
people could benefit from it, leading to a better life.
- Karim thought it is just what good people do, you cannot let innocent people starve.
→ for moral quality of the act, does it matter what motivation is behind it? → these motives
correspond to different ethical theories, so different answers → so STOP, SEE, REFLECT,
UNDERSTAND and ACT to make accountable moral decisions.
Plato and Aristotle: were both after finding universal truths about the world → both thought
reason plays a big role → truth = objective knowledge about the laws that govern the world →
BUT, how you arrive at it, has been and still is open to dispute → rationalism (idealism = Plato) vs.
empiricism (realism = Aristotle) → Aristotle studied the world empirically.
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