A very clear overview of English Literature from the Middle Ages until the Renaissance. Every concept that a student needs to know is thoroughly explained! All the stories are explained, as well as the history behind them (context). The contents contain all of the subjects/concepts A lot of student...
Part I. The Middle Ages
1. The early Middle Ages
2. Venerable Bede
3. Beowulf
4. The late Middle Ages
5. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
6. Allegory – the Fox and the Wolf
7. Robin Hood
8. The Canterbury Tales – Geoffrey Chaucer
9. Sir Thomas Malory
Part II. Renaissance/Elizabethan Era
1. The sixteenth century
2. The Renaissance and humanism
3. Sonnets
4. Whoso list to hunt – Sir Thomas Wyatt
5. Sonnet 75 – Edmund Spenser
6. William Shakespeare: life and times
7. Sonnet 18 – William Shakespeare
8. Sonnet 130 – William Shakespeare
9. Dr Faustus – Christopher Marlowe
10. The metaphysical poets
11. The Good-Morrow – John Donne
1
, (450-1066)
Timeline of the early Middle Ages
After the Romans left in approximately 450 AD, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain. Originating in present-
day Denmark and Northern Germany, these tribes had themselves been driven off by the Huns: an Asian people who
invaded Europe from the east. This era is known as migration of the peoples.
After a period in which they were content to plunder, pillage and return home, the Anglo-Saxon raiders gradually
became settlers, establishing several kingdoms on British soil. The Anglo-Saxon kings surrounded themselves with
young warriors. These men formed a military and social elite, rewarded by the king with weapons, valuables, and land
in return for their loyalty and their support at time of war. In this period, loyalty was greatly prized. A warrior was
expected to remain true to his king until death – whether his own or the king’s. Fleeing from battle was the ultimate
form of cowardice and shame. When they weren’t fighting, the warriors would meet in the king’s great hall to eat,
drink and listen to stories and poems.1
Society wasn’t made up entirely of kings and warriors: most people were farmers. There is, however, little know about
them.
Sutton Hoo
Quite a lot is known about life in Anglo-Saxon England, and particularly about the life of the elite. One of the most
important and best known Anglo-Saxon sites is Sutton Hoo in Suffolk. Sutton Hoo is the burial site of a 7 th century
king, laid to rest in a 27-meter-long ship with many valuable objects, such as decorated weapons, gold coins and
brooches and helmets. Sutton Hoo shows that the society were sophisticated and capable of producing beautifully
detailed jewellery and weapons. It also shows the transition that was made from paganism to Christianity (classical
spoons, christening gifts). Other graves from this period show a time in which Christianity and paganism coexisted.
At the end of the sixth century, the pope had sent missionaries to Britain to convert the heathen Anglo-Saxons to
Christianity. In the course of the seventh century, almost everyone (that is, the kings and their subjects) had become
Christian and countless monasteries were established. And so, from the seventh century, the clergy (bishops and
priests) and monks played an important role in society.
1
All the previously mentioned values, as well as the mead hall, are common themes in Beowulf, what makes the poem
rather representative of the era it was written in.
2
,Bede
With Christianity, came Latin literature. In the monasteries a great deal of religious writing was done. A very important
monk was Bede (673-735). He wrote the history of the Anglo-Saxons, the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
This contained te history of the Christian Churches in England, hence ecclesiastical, as well as just the general history
of England. This work was completed in 731. It is, however, a rather subjective account of history, seeing as Bede
incorporated his own views on politics and religion. In particular, on the situation between Northumbria and Mercia
(who were rivals). The fact that this this work was copied by hand over and over in the manuscript tradition, makes
every copy different and knowing what the original said quite impossible.
Alfred the Great and Danelaw
King Alfred of Wessex was in many ways an important king. He defeated the Danes in 878, who had started wanting
to conquer the British Isles in 865. In 886 AD, Alfred negotiated a treaty with the Danes. England was divided, with
the north and the east to be Danish territory, also known as the as the 'Danelaw'. Alfred also reorganised the Anglo-
Saxon military, as well as built a fleet of ships (start of the navy).
Next to the military, Alfred did a lot for education. He commissioned the translation of Latin texts into Old English
to promote literacy and, in general, made it his business to rekindle education and learning. He also compiled the
Doom Book, which was a code of laws. This promoted justice in England, instead of the brutality which had been the
norm.
Anglo-Saxon chronicles
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a key source of information about the history of the various kingdoms and the Viking
invasions. It came to be under King Alfred’s rule, and was due to various monks and clerks starting to maintain
chronicles (annual records of contemporary events) from the ninth century. There were, however, again many versions
of history written down, which, again, makes accuracy difficult.
The Anglo-Saxon chronicles were written in Old English, as were a number of other works. Latin was, namely, not
the only language recorded in writing in this period. Perhaps the most famous work written in the early Middle Ages
is the epic poem Beowulf.
3
, Beowulf is the oldest European text written in a vernacular (i.e. common people’s) language. It is believed to have
originated somewhere in the 6th century, but was only written down in the 10 th century. It is unknown who wrote (i.e.
came up with) Beowulf, but it was written down by a Christian monk in a manuscript (Beowulf manuscript or Nowell
Codex). Before having been written down it was recited by poets from memory.
A summary of Beowulf:
The Danish king Hrothgar is enjoying his prosperous reign over Denmark and in order to celebrate it builds
a great mead-hall in which his warriors can come together to enjoy themselves. This happiness unfortunately
angers a horrible demon named Grendel, who then subsequently terrorizes the Danes every night, murdering
and defeating them again and again. The people suffer years at the hands of Grendel. That is, until a young
warrior named Beowulf hears of these misfortunes and decides to travel to Denmark, determined to defeat
this monster.
Beowulf arrives with a small company of men, and a great feast is held. It is then, well into the night, that
the blood-thirsty Grendel arrives. Beowulf slays the monster with absolute ease, making it cower in fear
beforehand, and tearing Grendel’s arm off when it attempted to escape. This severed arm is afterwards placed
highly in the mead-hall as a symbol of victory.
Celebrations continue until another threat arrives; Grendel’s mother. Overcome with anger due to her son’s
death she sets out to avenge him, in the process murdering one of Beowulf’s greatest advisors. After having
committed the murder, she slinks off to her swamp again, only to be fought by Beowulf who murders her,
with this having ridden the Danish land of all its monsters. Everybody is overjoyed and Beowulf is loved by
all in the kingdom.
Beowulf returns to Geatland and, some years later, becomes king of it himself. All is well for a long time,
until a dragon disturbs the peace. Beowulf goes off to fight it, and manages to kill it, but dies himself of the
wounds inflicted upon him. He is then cremated on an enormous pyre, which marks the end of the story.
The Anglo-Saxon oral tradition is also evident in the story. Like other oral art, it was handed down, with changes and
embellishments, from one story teller to another. To aid the retelling of the story, several poetic devices are
incorporated into this epic poem: it is written in alliterative verse.
The characteristics of alliterative verse are the following:
• Alliteration, i.e. repetition of initial sounds of words (occurs in every line)
• Generally four feet/beats per line
• A caesura, or pause, between beats two and four
• No (end) rhyme
Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in words close to one another in lines of poetry. Instead of
rhyme unifying a poem, the Anglo-Saxon poet used alliteration to connect the narrative structure of the epic.
e.g. “… A powerful monster, living down In the darkness, growled in pain, impatient
As day after day the music rang Loud in the hall …”
e.g. “So Hrothgar’s men lived happy in his hall”
4
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