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Artikel samenvatting applied congitive psycholgy (ACP)
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Samenvatting artikelen ACPWEEK 2:
HC:
- Overt attention: physical change which decides where your focus is
- Covert attention: without physical change changing attention
- Endogenous attention: internal signals. Opzettelijk en doelgericht, control, top-down
- Exogenous attention: external signals. Unconsicousnes, provided by external stimuli, bottom-
up and automatic.
Visual searching:
- Function integration: the more function to integrate, the longer it takes to find the subject.
- Pop-out effect: when a object is obvious it gets more/ faster attention
- Combination effect: when 2 functions need your attention, It is difficult to multitask
Short term memory:
- Primacy effect: remembering first items
- Recency effect: remembering last items
Working memory:
1. Central executive: inhibition, shifting and updating
2. Visuospatial sketch pad
3. Phonological loop:
Long-term memory (explicit and implicit):
- Semantic memory: facts
- Episodical memory
Phases LTM: encoding, storage and recall
Remembering more when repeated more + recency + making associations
Induced forgetting: responding on a specific part of the memory.
Reconsolidation: opponent of induced forgetting.
Decision making:
- Heuristics: strategies with low impact and fast.
- Normative models: following a set of rules, more secure but also slow
Situational attention (SA): decision making involves the situation and the consciousness in it
Information processing
Understanding transformation (of info) is important for predicting and modeling human system
interactions.
3 approaches to information processing:
1. The classic stage-based approach (open loop processing): different tasks and environmental
factors have a different influence of different stages (identifiable by experimental
, manipulations and brain physiology). Processing doesn’t have to start at stage 1 and goes
through all stages. Digital computer is used as metaphor to human behavior.
2. Ecological approach (closed loop model): More emphasis on the integrated flow of
information through the human rather than making distinction between stages. Interaction
between humans and the environment. > most relevant in interaction with the natural
environment
3. Cognitive engineering approach: Environment and the tasks constraints within which an
operator works. Great emphasis on modeling and understanding the knowledge structures that
expert operators have of the domain. Mix of the two above.
Boradbent’s book: info processing is now seen as a part of a filtering process through mechanisms of
human attention. Early selection.
Three different modes of attention:
- Selective: how attention is focused on a particular object in the environment for a certain
period of time. Influenced by: salience, effort, expectancy and value. Choses wat to process.
1. Salient features > capture attention (bottom-up), auditory better than visual
2. Expectancy: frequently changing areas scanned more often.
3. Value > knowing info is carrying out useful tasks. Is a modulator for expectancy.
4. Effort > required to move attention around > can be reduced by effective lay-out of
displays
- Focused: used to maintain processing of the desired sources and avoid the distracting
influence of potentially competing stimuli.
Primary sources of breakdowns: physical properties of the visual environment (clutter) or
auditory environment (noise).
- Divided: the ability to process more than one attribute or element of the environment at given
time.
Discrimination and confusability:
- Discrimination between information sources: making soures discriminable by space, color,
intensity, frequency, or other physical differences.
To parse the world into meaningful components
Easier for the operator to focus attention
Visual search models: predict the time that is required to find a target. Visual search = looking for
something in a cluttered environment.
Serial self-terminating model: search space is filled with items of which most are distractors.
Model is influenced by 3 factors: bottom-up parallel processing, top-down processing and
target familiarity.
Target prevalence rate: expectancy of whether a target will be present or not
Target familiarity: repeated exposures to the same consistent target can speed the search for
that target and reduce the likelihood that the target may be missed.
Perception and data interpretation:
- Critical targets must be detectable / false alarms (= when people respond as if they saw
something, while there was no target)
Signal detection theory (SDT): describes the processes what can lead to both types of errors.
- Expectancy, context and identification: prior knowledge influence the ability to identify
enormous number of objects. Bv letters > woorden
, A level of sensory excitation serves as a response criterion.
To many false alarms: automation mistrust > people may ignore the alarms > cry wolf
phenomenon
- Prior knowledge can influence the ability to identify objects
5 cues that have to do with characteristics of the viewer:
- Motion parallax: objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move an
greater amount if they are closer to an observer than they would if they were at a greater
distance
- Binocular disparity difference in viewpoint of two eyes, difference diminishes exponentially
as objects are farther from the viewer.
Stereopsis: use of binocular disparity to perceive depth (3d depth)
Accommodation and binocular convergence: result from the natural adjustment of the eyes
that is needed to focus on specific objects at different distances
Motion perception:
- Apparent motion: ability to perceive seamless motion of displayed objects from a series of still
images presented within certain spatial-temporal bounds
- Vection: illusional perception of self-motion by a stationary operator
- Frame effects: visual perception influenced by framework within which it occurs
Baddeley: four-part model of the WM: Two temporary storage systems: Phonolocial loop +
Visuospatial sketchpad.
Planning: can depend on 2 types of cognitive operations:
- Scripts that they have stored in their LTM which are based on past experience
- Guess work and some level of mental stimulation of future activities.
Two approached to problem solving:
- Pattern matching technique: match between features of the problem observed and patterns
experienced previously and stored in LTM (part of naturalistic decision making)
- Series of diagnostic test must often be performed, and based on the outcomes new tests or
actions are taken until the existing state of the world is identified.
Working memory limitations:
- If info not rehearsed > it is lost rapidly
- Memory span 7 +- 2 items
- Interference in WM
Metacognition: a person’s knowledge about his or her own cognitive processes and the use of this info
to regulate performance.
- Central executive: planning, monitoring, evaluating one’s own performance
- Naïve realism: tendency to prefer more realistic-looking displays, even when simpeler formats
would support better performance
Bandwith: the amount of info processed per unit time. Units info is described in bits.
Multiple task performance: Perfect parallel processing means that two (or more) tasks are performed
concurrently as well as either is performed alone, degraded concurrent processing means that both
tasks are performed concurrently but one or both suffers, and strict parallel processing means that only
one task is performed at a time.
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