Comprehensive College Notes Introduction to Psychology (UM)
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Course
Introduction To Psychology
Institution
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU)
Notes of all lectures in the course Introduction to Psychology associated with the Minor Psychology and the Brain (2022/2023) written in English. Examples, images and references to the required literature are used.
Introduction to Psychology UM
Lecturer: Mieke Donk
Lecture 1: 06 sept 2022
Topic 1 - Genes and Evolution
Psychology is the scientific study of mind, brain and behavior (Phelps, et al., 2022), or it is
the scientific study of mind and brain to explain behavior? And why do we need a science for
that?
Because common sense fails
The genetic basis. Is it correct to claim that ‘a violent person has violent genes’?
In the 70’s they believed behavior is being influenced by the environment (so, no!)
In the 90’s they believed that genes do indeed influence behavior (so, yes!)
Today: genes influence environment and environment influences behavior (all vice
versa)
1
,Genes are the meaningful sections of the DNA molecule, they govern the cell’s functioning
by providing instructions for making proteins. They are the units of heredity that help
determine an organism’s characteristics.
Chromosomes are structures within the cell body that are made up of DNA, segments of
which comprise individual genes.
Gene expression is whether a gene is turned ‘on’ or ‘off’,
the extent to which a gene is transcribed into a sequence
of amino acids (protein)
In each cell, some genes are expressed at any
point in time and others are not
This is controlled by the biochemical
environment inside the cell
The biochemical environment inside the cell
is influenced by e.g., the environment outside the cell, timing in development, the
overall environment, experience, behavior…
A genotype is an organism’s specific set of genes,
determined at the moment of conception. The
phenotype are the overt traits and behaviors of an
organism, this is determined by the genotype and the
environment (experience, past and presents).
Genes x environment is the phenotype
Twins for example have the same genotypes but have
different phenotypes, so they are exposed to different environments (monozygotic or
dizygotic).
So, each gene is paired with another gene, the pairs are located at corresponding
positions on pairs of chromosomes
An allele is one specific variant of a gene (dominant or recessive), for example by
determining the colour of the eyes of a baby (brown eyes are dominant, blue is
recessive)
Heredity is the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.
Heritability is a measure of how well differences in people’s genes account for differences in
their traits, the extent to which variation in a trait within an population is due to genetics.
A specific trait or behavior is determined by the interaction between the environment (past
and present) and one gene pair, or multiple gene pairs (polygenetic inheritance).
An organism’s set of DNA and genes (the genome) is shaped by evolution over the years,
Darwin’s evolution theory. Charles Darwin hypothesized that all modern organisms are
descended from a small set of shared ancestors and have merged over time through the
process of evolution.
2
,The key mechanism of evolution is natural selection. Three conditions:
There is variation among individuals of a populations
Individuals with a certain trait survive and reproduce at higher rates than others
The trait associated with this advantage is passed from parents to offspring
Specific traits will be represented in the next generation. So, organisms differ in genotype and
variations in genotype are passed from generation to generation, genes survive, not
individuals.
Lecture 2: 07 sept 2022
Topic 2 – The Brain and the Nervous System
Building blocks of the nervous system. The nervous system is made
up of two basic kinds of cells: glia and neurons.
The glia has a supportive function
The neurons are important when you talk about behavior,
these are the cells that receive information in the form of
electrical impulses
There are different types of neuros
The sensory receptors, a nerve ending that sends signals to
the central nervous system when it is stimulated
Sensory (afferent) neurons, carry information towards the central nervous system
Motor (efferent) neurons, carry information towards the body from the central
nervous system, these neurons transmit impulses throughout the body, they direct
muscles
Interneurons, these are the neurons in between, for example transferring signals
between sensory and motor neurons, communication
Communication among neurons:
3
, Neurons either fire (action potential is generated) or do not fire (action potential is not
generated), it is an all-or-none law. Intensity variations are measured by variations in the
number of neurons firing or in the intensity in firing rate.
Action potential is the electrical signal that passes along the axon and subsequently causes
the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons. The resting membrane potential is the
electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active (-70 millivolts).
Neurons interact via synapses and through chemical substances
Synapses are the places where a signal passes from one nerve
cell to another
The points of contact between neurons where information is
passed from one neuron to the next
Neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin…) are chemical substances
that transmit signals from one neuron to another, they are molecules used by the nervous
system to transmit messages, these work according to a lock-and-key model:
The effect is terminated by auto
receptors, synaptic reuptake and
enzymes
The binding of a neurotransmitter
with a receptor produces an excitatory
or inhibitory signal
Action potentials increase (excitatory)
or action potentials decrease
(inhibitory)
Different types of neurotransmitters and their psychological functions
Acetylcholine, motor control over muscles, learning, memory, sleeping and
dreaming
Norepinephrine, arousal, vigilance and attention
Serotonin, emotional states and impulsiveness, also dreaming
Dopamine, reward and motivation, motor control over voluntary movement
GABA(gamma-aminobutyric acid), inhibition of action potentials, anxiety
reduction
Glutamate, enhancement of action potentials, learning and memory
Endorphins, pain reduction and reward
Agonists drugs can increase the release of neurotransmitters, they can counteract the cleanup
enzymes that break down the transmitter. They can block the reuptake of neurotransmitters
and mimic the transmitter’s action.
Antagonists drugs can block the release of neurotransmitters, they can destroy
neurotransmitter in the synapse
4
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