Essay
Psychology: Controversies: Sexism
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A fully written essay on the controversy of sexism within the field of psychology (found in paper 3: Implications in the Real World). Essay awarded 24/25.
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ControversiesSexism
Much psychological research has been characterised by bias resulting from an
androcentric perspective. However, recent years have seen initiatives such as
feminist psychology try to address this imbalance in research. This essay will
examine whether psychological research continues to suffer from sexism.
One way that it could be argued that sexism in an issue in PR is in terms of
gender differences/bias. There are two main types of bias; alpha and beta bias.
Alpha bias is the exaggeration of differences between men and women (tends
to devalue women in relation to men) whereas as beta bias is the tendency to
ignore or minimise differences between men and women. An example of
research that may be alpha biased is Freudian theory. Freud stated All females
experience "penis envy" and viewed femininity as an expression of failed
masculinity and as well as that also believed that the Electra complex made
females morally inferior to males. Beta bias occurs when female ppts aren't
included as part of the research process and is assumed that the findings of the
research apply equally to both sexes. An example of research with beta bias is
Milgram’s study of obedience, which consisted of an all-male sample and
findings based on the all-male sample are then generalised to women.
Sheridan and King’s research highlighted that the differences in obedience in
males and females was failed to be recognised in Milgram's research.
However, it could be argued that psychology simply highlights real gender
differences between males and females. Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found
genuine differences between males and females (girls have better verbal ability
than boys while boys have greater arithmetical ability than girls). As well as
that a 2005 report found that there were gender differences in motivation,
with girls outperforming boys at A level in 74% of state schools. This therefore
highlights that PR doesn’t necessarily suffer from sexism, but highlights
genuine differences.
It could be argued that historical context contributes to PR. Smith and Lloyds
research into gender stereotypes found that mothers selected gender
“appropriate” toys for their children (e.g., a doll for a girl). This research
demonstrates that parents reinforce gender stereotypes from a young age.
Moss Racusin et al found evidence to suggest that gender stereotypes still
persist as applications using the name “Jennifer” were perceived as less
, competent than John. This suggests that sexism in PR results from a long
history of gender stereotypes in society.
However, the historical and social context of sexism may be changing. Feminist
psychology is a branch of psychology, founded in the 1970s, that aims to
redress the imbalances found within psychology. Feminist psychologist argue
that the biggest contributor to perceived different are socially determined
ones rather than biological ones and that there must be revision of our facts
about gender in order for there to be any social change. His suggest that there
may be developments in redressing the historical and social context of sexism
in PR.
Another reason PR may suffer from sexism is the due to its focus on
heterosexism. Heterosexism is discrimination or prejudice against homosexuals
on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation. Wood
and Duck highlighted that PR tended to be concentrated on only a small
sample of human relationships and ignored online, long distance and
homosexual relationships. Viewing heterosexual and homosexual relationships
as different and requiring different research is an issue as this may continue to
reinforce existing stereotypes (alpha bias). However disregarding differences
may lead to one group being devalued (beta bias). This suggests sexism in PR is
exacerbated by heterosexism within research.
A final reason PR may suffer from sexism is due to the invisibility of women in
psychology. The American Psychological Association published a list of the 100
most eminent psychologists of the 20th century and within that list only 6
women were listed. This imbalance of only 6 women being listed strange as
most undergraduate psychology students are female. Murphy et al stated that
part of the problem was women's own implicit stereotypes about gender as
well as endorsing male superiority. In order for change to occur, Murphy et al
suggests we must all become aware of biases. Until then PR will continue to
suffer from sexism
While there have been a range of attempts to revise gender stereotypes within
PR, by feminist psychology, and the acknowledgement that there are genuine
differences between males and females such as those highlighted by Maccoby
and Jacklin the prevalence of sexism continues to plague PR. This is due to the
invisibility of women as well as the historical context of gender stereotypes
that will continue to remain unless we become fully conscious of our biases.
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