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Dit is een samenvatting voor het vak Geschiedenis van het Moderne Midden Oosten.
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Chapter 4Forging a new synthesis – The pattern of Reforms, 1789-1849
In the Ottoman empire military reforms was the spearhead for the reform of civilian
institutions and the creation of a new elite whose status was based on its training in
European-style academies.
Selim III (1789-1806): Between Old and New
The goal of Selim III was not to transform the traditional Ottoman empire, but to
preserve and strengthen it. Because Selim’s programs laid the groundwork for a full-
fledged reform movement by his successor and because his downfall identified the
barriers to further change, his reign constituted an important bridge between old and
new.
The lesson of the wars with Russia and Britain was clear: without military
improvement the Ottoman empire would not survive. In 1792, Selim embarked on a
series of reforms designed to reorganize the armed forces among European lines.
Selim’s most ambitious project was the creation of a new infantry corps and equipped
according to the latest European standards, the nizam-jedid (the new order) was
formed in 1797 and adopted a pattern of equipment that was uncommon for the
imperial forces.
But Selim’s inability to integrate the force with the regular army and his reluctance to
deploy it against his domestic opponents limited its role in defending the state it was
created to preserve.
Opening to the West
Selim wished to restrict the adoption of European technology and ideas to the
military, but because of his embassies in European capitals, there was transmission
of knowledge.
Dragomans = court translators employed from the Christian millets.
The overthrow of Selim III
The powerful derebeys were alarmed that the sultan financed his new forces by
confiscating timars and directing the revenue to the nizam-i jedid. Further opposition
came from the ulama and other members of the ruling elite. They deposed Selim in
1806 and chose a successor. Over the next year, the European ambassies were
dismantles, the nizam-I jedid troops dispersed and Selim was murdered.
A revived center of power: The Egypt of Muhammad Ali, 1805-1848
The Mamluk restoration and the French invasion
By the late eighteenth century, Egypt had become an autonomous state under a
revived Mamluk order. The Mamluk regime was unstable and no cohesive
government and operated trough a network of competing households.
,The warfare among the Mamluk factions broke down order and security in the rural
areas. This changed during the leadership of Muhammad Ali.
Following the French revolution, the war between Napoleon France and Britain was
not only fought on European grounds, but extended. They fought over access to
overseas markets and strategic outposts. Egypt became involved in this rivalry, when
a Napoleon invasion defeated Mamluk forces at the Battle of the Pyramids.
This occupation of the French was unpopular and was ended by a joint British-
Ottoman expedition and arranged for the evacuation of the French.
The reform policies of Muhammad Ali
The regime of Muhammad Ali represented the first sustained program in the Middle-
East of state-sponsored Europeanization of the military and the institutions that
supported it.
In 1805, Muhammad Ali was recognized as the Ottoman governor of Egypt. He
refashioned the armed forces, reorganized the administration, changed agriculture
and introduced heavy industry. These changes were part of a state-building process
in which Ali transformed Egypt into a fledgling state.
His political objective was to secure independence from the Ottoman empire, he
believed that that could only be won by a powerful army and navy. So his main goal
was to strengthen the armed forces. The barrier to that were the Mamluk’s
interference, so he ordered a massacre.
He sent several trainings missions to Europe, to understand more of European
military science. After that he founded educational institutions to produce experts in
military support services.
Muhammad Ali’s wholehearted acceptance of the printing press was really important
in promoting the spread of Western ideas to Egypt.
Because he needed an army and couldn’t get soldiers from Sudan, he used Egyptian
fellahins for his armed forces.’
To pay for his military he would have had to exploit Egyptian resources and had to
look for other kind of revenues.
Iltizam (Mamluk and ulama): a tax-farming system in which taxfarmers remitted a
fixed annual sum to the treasury and retained whatever surplus they could extort
from the peasants under their control.
Waaf (Muhammad Ali): a practice that permitted the income from property to be set
aside in perpetuity for charitable purposes such as the upkeep of mosques and
schools.
Muhammad Ali also experimented with new ways of making revenues, which was the
cotton industry.
Corvée: a levy of forced peasant labor.
,In an effort to make the country self-sufficient, Muhammad Ali began a program of
industrialization with an emphasis on war material.
To control the Egyptian economy, Muhammad Ali made use of a monopoly system,
so he forced cultivators to sell directly to him at a fixed price and then sold it for a
higher market price.
One of his lasting achievements was the reorganization of administration. The
government was centralized under his authority and was divided in differentiated
ministries. So government became more bureaucratized and predictable.
A negative view of Muhammad Ali was that he despised his subjects and his
language was Ottoman Turkish and not Egyptian Arab.
The wars of expansion
His first overseas campaign was the Wahhabi movement in western Arabia, so
Mecca and Medina. But the Ottoman sultan ordered that Muhammad Ali had to put
down the revolt. Meanwhile events in Ottoman Europe gave Ali the opportunity to
expand his empire, e.g. the Greek revolt.
To obtain raw materials that were lacking in Egypt, Muhammad Ali ignored the orders
of the Sultan and invaded Syria. When Ibrahim was forcing the Ottoman forces out of
Syria, the Ottoman sultan asked for European help and Russia responded.
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi: Treaty between Russia and the Ottoman empire.
Because of this treaty, other European countries responded and forced Muhammad
Ali to end their hostility.
The Battle of Nezib: Sultan Mahmud II sent an army against Ibrahim in spring 1939.
This caused another diplomatic crises. Britain and the Ottoman empire joined forces
and defeated Muhammad Ali.
Treaty of London 1841: compelled Muhammad Ali to withdraw from all the territories
he had occupied except Sudan. Also limited the Egyptian army to 18.000 men.
Treaty of Balta Liman: Trade convention that provided for the abolition of all
monopolies within the Ottoman empire and granted foreign goods entry at the
favourable tariff rate of 3 percent.
Following the signing of the Treaty of London, most of Muhammad Ali’s war-related
industries were abandoned, many of his schools were closed and public work
projects ceased.
Nationalism and Great Power Intervention: The Greek Revolt, 1821-1829
The Ottoman empire feared a new threat which was nationalism, this new ideology
endangered the imperial religious structure of the Ottoman empire.
, Because of high educated Greeks, the wider Greek community became familiar with
Western Europe and the ideology of the French revolution. Fuelling popular
alienation from the Ottoman overlords was the development of nationalism and
stimulated by Greek literature and the classical Greek past. The Ottomans were seen
as alien oppressors.
Although lacking coordination and central leadership, the mainland of Greece
successfully drove the Ottomans away. Desperate to end the rebellion, Sultan
Mahmud II called on Muhammad Ali. When Muhammad Ali joined, the Great Powers
asserted their interest and changed the outcome of events.
Eastern Question Diplomacy: Britain, Russia and France joined together to make
sure none of them three would antagonize at each other and ignite a war between
themselves to gain land of the Ottoman empire.
Navarino defeat: Prompted Muhammad Ali to withdraw from Greece.
Treaty of Adrianople (1829): between the Ottomans and the Russians. Russia
reduced its original territorial demands and agreed to withdraw from Danube. The
affairs of Greece were regulated by a convention of 1832 , which declared Greece an
independent state under the protection if France, Britain and Russia.
Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839): Centralization and transformation
One might arguably present Mahmud II as the most effective of the late Ottoman
sultans, a skillful and determined monarch whose rule achieved for the empire what
Muhammad Ali’s had for Egypt.
In his first years, he created a campaign to re-establish central authority within the
provinces of the empire. Mahmud succeeded in breaking the derebeys power. The
janissaries mounted a demonstration, but Mahmud was prepared and used his new
troops to crush it.
The elimination of the janissaries removed the major obstacle to further reform, and
during the final thirteen years of his reign, Mahmud instituted a rapid-placed program
that transformed the traditional Ottoman order. His first priority was to rebuild his
army along European lines. European influences penetrated the military through the
educational infrastructure Mahmut established.
He followed the example of Muhammad Ali and began sending groups of students to
Europe for advances study and ensuring a deeper commitment to European models
among members of the new officer groups.
Abolishing old offices, he introduced new lines of responsibility in a move to create
European-style ministries and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery.
Sipahi units:
In 1838 the sultan founded two institutions for the training of higher officials. Both
offered a mixture of standard and secular objects and included instruction in French.
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