Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Elizabeth I’s Character
§ She was very well educated and had been brought up with all the training of a potential heir. younger than Mary
§ She was cultured in the arts, music, literature and languages.
§ Shrewd and proved a good judge of character
§ She learnt much from her imprisonment and political experiences, including her tempestuous relationship with
Thomas Seymour, and the accusation of her being implicated in Wyatt’s Rebellion.
§ Her difficult existence as protestant had made her cautious and even as queen, she was reluctant to take decisions
§ Elizabeth believed God saved her to be queen- derived comfort from his faith. Although a protestant, firm belief in
royal supremacy, conservative views of church ceremony
Accession of Elizabeth I (Born in 1553) Elizabeth I’s Aims
§ Elizabeth ascended to the throne at the age of 25 1558. 1. She was determined to
§ On the day that Queen Mary died, in November 1558, Sir William Cecil preserve the prerogative
informed Elizabeth of her death. powers of the Crown- insisted
§ 20th Nov. appointed William Cecil, Thomas parry, Robert Dudley on taking the most important
§ Has a very quick coronation- worried about position decisions. Aa
§ Mary’s councillors were aware that Elizabeth did not share their political 2. She wanted to consolidate her
views, and many guessed that their political careers were over. position.
§ However, they made no attempt to interfere with the lawful succession. Aa
§ Mary had recognised Elizabeth as her successor before her death. 3. Settle religious issues.
§ However, in some respects, it was a difficult succession. Sa
§ This was because England had suffered from a series of bad harvests, so 4. Pursue a peaceful settlement
food was expensive, and the country had also suffered from the influenza with France.
epidemic.
§ The political and religious situation was also delicate. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her
§ Furthermore, England had fought a disastrous war with France, which
successor and her husband Philip
resulted in the loss of Calais.
§ The question of finding a suitable person for Elizabeth to marry- produce signified his recognition of Elizabeth
an heir to guarantee the succession. right of succession.
Elizabeth I’s Consolidation of Power
§ Her path to power was eased by the acceptance of her succession by Mary’s key councillors.
§ 17th Nov Nicholas heath, Mary’s lord chancellor/ archbishop of York announced Mary’s death to parliament.
Politically- significant move as it showed that political elite assented to Elizabeth’s succession. Nine of Mary’s
councillors rode to Hatfield had assured Elizabeth of their loyalty; there’d be no attempt to deny Elizabeth’s
succession by devout Catholics who’d never accepted the validity of Henry VIII’s marriage to Anne Boleyn.
§ Cecil was appointed principal secretary, a post which he held until his death in 1598. Elizabeth also made some
other household appointments.
§ Cecil was also given the title of Lord Burghley in 1571.
§ She also showed herself to be familiar with customs related to the ascension of new monarchs.
§ Her coronation also took place quickly, in January 1559.
§ Furthermore, she gained a measure of international confirmation through the proposed marriage between Philip
II of Spain, which came to nothing.
§ However, it did show that Philip was unwilling to disrupt the smoothness of her ascension.
, What actions did Elizabeth take personally to help consolidate her power?
§ William Cecil was appointed principal secretary. At this stage, however, she did not announce any further
appointments
§ Kept Mary’s councillors guessing about who would be appointed to Government, to encourage loyalty.
§ Quick coronation (Only 2 months after Mary’s death.) 15th January 1559.
§ Showed herself familiar with customs. Went to the Tower. Showed herself to the Public on multiple occasions.
Attended pageants to show herself to people. Use of image as Propaganda.
§ Gained some measure of international confirmation. Spanish ambassador, Count of feria had visited Elizabeth
several days before Mary’s death and her accession tried to broker a marriage alliance between Elizabeth and
Philip ii. Philip was unwilling to do anything to disrupt the smoothness of the succession
Problems in 1558: how could each issue be a problem for England
Mary’s councillors and religion:
§ Privy council was dominated by Catholics. Elizabeth had to decide which councillors to keep without alienating
Catholics. Simon Renard- influence of Spain
The position of the catholic church
§ People are still divided by religion- majority were catholic
Bad harvests:
§ Farmers lost income, purchasing power decreases, social costs- rebellion people more likely to rebel over economic
issues. Poverty increases esp. amongst the lower classes.
§ Collapse of cloth industry
Flu epidemic
Killed 200,000 people – leads to unrest around the situation
Gender:
§ Lack of successful precedent. Empress Matilda, Lady Jane Grey and Mary I. a lot of people are concerned a female
cannot run the country.
§ Pressure to marry – could cause further problems
§ Pressure to produce an heir
§ Foreign policy will be difficult as all other countries are male dominated
The war with France; the loss of Calais
§ Ideas that a women cannot lead the country becomes prevalent. Mary lost Calais which had been under England’s
control for many years.
§ Debt of £300,000 after war which would weaken the crowns finance
,The Treaty of Cateau-Cabresis, 1559
§ When Elizabeth came to the throne, England was in conflict with France.
§ This war had resulted in the loss of Calais and a weakening of the Crown’s finances.
§ Elizabeth wanted to withdraw from this war and, fortunately, the finances of Philip II and Henry II meant that they
were unable to continue funding the conflict.
§ Under the Treaty, France would retain Calais for eight years, and then it would be restored to English control, on
the condition that England kept the peace during the period.
§ If France failed to return Calais, they agreed to pay £125,000 to England.
§ England ended the war with France with the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis-
Intervention in Scotland
§ Death of Henry II of France, in 1559, caused further problems. Henry II = succeeded by Francis II- married to Mary,
Queen of Scots, the main Catholic claimant to the English throne. This solidified the alliance between France and
Scotland.
§ In Scotland, Protestant nobles, Lords of the Congregation, led a rebellion against the French Catholic regent in
Scotland, Mary of Guise seeking English support
§ French troops were sent to garrison major Scottish fortresses.
§ Elizabeth was reluctant to intervene and loathed Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation.
§ Cecil sympathised with the religious predicament of Scotland, England would be more secure without a French
force north of the border.
§ At first, Elizabeth was cautious and reluctant to intervene Cecil persuaded Elizabeth to send secret limited arms
and money to them, by playing on her insecurities about Mary, Queen of Scots and by threatening his own
resignation
§ Initially help consisted of money and armaments, but by December 1559 the Navy were sent to the Firth of Forth.
§ In 1560, the Treaty of Edinburgh was signed and French troops were withdrawn from Scotland.
§ The Lords of the Congregation were accepted as a provisional conciliar government.
§ 1560= army sent to blockade Leith. Francis II died later in 1560, and Mary, Queen of Scots returned to Scotland.
§ In Scotland, Mary was forced to accept the political and religious power of her enemies.
§ French eventually were forced to withdraw, although this was mainly for other reasons. The Regent Mary of Guise
then died. England initially sent money and armaments but from Dec 1559 became more directly involved
§ Cecil has succeeded in protecting the interests of Scottish Protestants and reducing the political influence of Mary,
Queen of Scots.
§
Intervention in France
§ In 1562, Further issues in France occurred following the death of Mary of Guise and Francis II. Conflict arose
between Catholics and the Protestant Huguenots in March 1562.
§ Whilst a weakened France removed its immediate threat, it tipped the balance of power towards Spain.
§ Elizabeth promised to support the Huguenot leader, prince of conde, offering 6,000 men, and a loan of £30,000.-
Treaty of Hampton Court in 1562.
§ Robert Dudley encouraged Elizabeth to put military pressure on French crown so at to ensure the return of Calais.
§ However, the Huguenots were defeated, and England was forced to sign the unfavourable Treaty of Troyes in
1564.
§ Elizabeth had lost the assurance she had gained from Cateau-Cabresis and had lost Calais.
§ However, Calais was expensive to maintain, so its loss may have been an advantage.
§ There was a huge blow on Elizabeth’s prestige, and Elizabeth became more cautious about supporting
Protestant causes on the continent.
§ England had broken the agreement from Cateau-Cambresis, meaning that Calais would return to the French
permanently
§ Demonstrates Elizabeth’s willingness to get involved in religious conflicts on the continent
,The Elizabethan Religious Settlement
§ The legal status of the Church had not been altered with the death of Queen Mary.
§ Therefore, until the law was changed, the English Church remained part of the Catholic Church.
§ The Elizabethan settlement essentially embraced:
• Two Acts of Parliament, the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity.
• The issue of a set of royal injunctions, to enforce the Acts.
• A new Book of Common Prayer to allow common religious practice to take place across England.
§ Although not initially part of the original settlement, the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion were introduced in 1563.
Act of Supremacy, 1559 Organisation of the Church of England
§ The Act re-established the English monarch as head of the Church. § Little was altered about the national
§ The papal supremacy, restored by statute law under Mary I, was organisation of the Church, other than
rejected. its leadership.
§ The heresy law that was revived under Mary was also repealed.
§ The title of ‘Supreme Governor’ was given to Elizabeth. It gave § England continued to have two
Elizabeth the same status as Henry VIII and Edward VI, but the archbishops and bishops remained.
title was controversial than "Supreme Head.”
§ Therefore, she was able to satisfy those who still regarded the § This form of organisation didn’t appear
Pope as the head of the Church. in any of the Protestant churches in
§ It also required all clergymen and church officials to swear an Europe, where much more emphasis
oath of loyalty to the Supreme Governor. was placed on each congregation
§ To make sure that the leadership was truly being accepted at organising itself.
parish level, commissioners were sent to investigate.
§ The Court of High Commission was established to prosecute those Why was the Elizabethan
whose loyalty was suspect. religious settlement
significant?
Act of Uniformity, 1559
The settlement was a
§ The Act set out rules about the appearance of churches. compromise. Elizabeth
§ Everyone should go to church once a week, pay a fine of 12 pence was under pressure from
§ Essentially, it enforced practices which had existed in 1549, when the first Prayer 2 extremes
Book had been issued.
§ John Neale argues
§ The alter was replaced by communion tables but Catholic artefacts; crosses and
pressure from
candles, could be placed on it.
‘puritan choir’ radical
§ The Act also set out what priests should wear to conduct services.
clergymen and MP’s,
§ This was another nod towards Catholics, Protestants felt that spoken word was
may’ve forced her to
more important that what the preacher wore.
accept a more
§ Keeping a Catholic appearance to the church was a wise move, as most people
protestant prayer
were more concerned about what happened during the communion service, rather
book than she had
than theological disputes.
really wanted.
§ Therefore, they would accept the introduction of mildly Protestant ideas about
§ Catholic bishops/
worship but would find abrupt changes to the appearance of their church alarming.
conservative peers in
§ To make sure that there was uniformity of worship, attendance at church was made
the house of lords,
compulsory.
strongly opposed the
§ Anyone failing to attend could be fined. although the fines were small and not
uniformity bill,
usually imposed. The money collected was distributed to the poor.
believing the
§ Attendance at Catholic Mass, rather than the communion service of the Church of
settlement too
England, was treated as a serious offence. Anyone saying Mass could also face the
protestant.
death penalty.
,The 1559 Prayer Book The Royal Injunctions,1559
§ The form of worship to be followed was set out in the Act § The Royal Injunctions of 1559 included 57
Uniformity. instructions.
§ The Act’s purpose was to establish a single agreed set of § Preachers had to be licensed by a bishop
doctrines throughout the country, ending the quarrels before they could begin preaching.
between Protestants and Catholics. § Preachers had to preach at least one service
§ To achieve this, a new Prayer Book was issued which set out each month or lose their licence
the way that services should be conducted. § Every church had to display a Bible written in
§ The 1559 Book of Common Prayer was a fusion of the two English.
Prayer Books issued in Edward VI's reign. § Pilgrimages were to be outlawed.
§ It used the moderate language of the 1549 book with the § No more altars were to be destroyed.
more openly Protestant words in the 1552. § Celebration of eucharist at a simple
§ This worked well as a compromise between Protestants and communion table
Catholics beliefs. § Any prospective wife of a clergyman had to
§ For example, variations of the Eucharist belief were possible produce a certificate, signed by 2 JPs-
– whether the bread and wine was transubstantiated into indicate her fitness
the body and blood of Christ, or if it was a commemorative
ceremony.
Thirty-Nine Articles, 1563
§ The Articles sought to define the differences between the Church of England and the Catholic Church/ doctrine
§ The Articles welded together many different Protestant and Catholic traditions, aiming to be acceptable to as many
people as possible.
§ They were broadly supportive of reformed doctrine but attempted to adopt a broad and comprehensive approach
to essential beliefs. Denied teachings conferring transubstantiation and affirmed scripture was final authority on
salivation.
§ The Convocation of the Church were unsuccessful in achieving its wider aims concerning the remaining features of
Catholic practice.
§ Their vision of reform was not shared by Elizabeth.
§ Therefore, the Church of England was becoming Calvinist in its official doctrine, but only ‘half-reformed’ in its
structures.
Extent of Success of the Religious Settlement
§ Virtually all bishops, that Mary had appointed, opposed the religious settlement, and were dismissed.
§ This gave Elizabeth the opportunity to make new appointments, which created a Church leadership which was
enthusiastic about her reforms.
§ The scale of refusal between 1559 to 1563 was also minimal.
§ However, some ministers ignored the new Book of Common Prayer, and stuck to the traditional Catholic form of
worship.
§ The 1559 Act of Exchange allowed Elizabeth to take over property belonging to bishops and force them to rent
land from her.
§ This was often used to threaten bishops who were critical of the religious settlement.
§ Most opposition of the religious settlement was based on financial issues, and what the priests wore to
Clear that English church would again be broken from Rome, Elizabeth would seek to re-establish royal supremacy
over church in England. The Elizabethan church settlement of 1559 provided framework for this, a middle way,
between Catholicism and Protestantism. The settlement not only established supremacy, set the way church was to
be organised and the content and conduct of services
,Impact of religious developments
The Elizabethan settlement of 1559, clearly protestant. In December 1559, all but one of the Marian bishops refused to
consecrate the Archbishop of Canterbury, Matthew Parker. Positions were filled by protestants exiled under Mary such
as Edmund Grindal, became bishop of London
However Elizabeth was more conservative than her strongly protestant supporters. Disapproved of clergy marrying,
distrusted preaching and favoured musical culture of the cathedrals and university colleges
§ Queen viewed the settlement as an act of statue, defining the relationship between crown and church but not
‘making widows into men’s souls’
§ Others (Cecil, Dudley) believed settlement was starting point for the development of a Puritan church, following
Calvinist ides and totally rejecting catholic teaching
While the Elizabethan settlement reformed doctrine, it didn’t go far enough to please leading protestants in its reform
of the churches structures, disciplinary procedures services, clerical dress. In essence COE, was becoming Calvinist but
only ‘half reformed’ in its structures.
,The impact of economic, social, and religious developments in the early years of Elizabeth’s rule
In 1558 the economy was in a poor state and a fall in real wages meant there was a considerable social distress. MP’s
were particularly
. concerned about the number of masterless (unapprenticed) men in towns, and reports increasing
vagabondage and escalating crime
Elizabeth came to the throne at a difficult time for the English economy.
§ The combination of bad harvests, high mortality rates, high taxation, for many, a significant cut in real wages, =
fear of social instability.
§ However, high level of mortality, = reduced the supply of labour, did increase the bargaining supply of survivors.
§ A range of legislation was proposed during Elizabeth’s first parliament- deal with range of problems, but none of
these were passed into law.
§ This meant that central government was left with two, relatively ineffective, mechanisms to deal with the
situation: instructions issued to JPs and other officials, and royal proclamations.
Poor Relief
§ The problems of poverty and vagabondage remained widespread during late Tudor England.
§ There were a number of causes of poverty.
o Population increases.
o Real wage of labourers had decreased, whilst prices rose.
o Harvest failures had caused food shortages in the mid-1550s and mid-1590s.
§ Offering made by private benefactors was no longer enough.
§ Cecil was particularly concerned that the large numbers of homeless and unemployed people could pose a threat
to law and order.
§ The deserving and undeserving poor were differentiated, with the former being entitled to receive some sort of
limited assistance, whereas the latter were punished.
§ The deserving poor included the old, widows and those whose disabilities prevented their employment.
§ Before the Reformation, the main responsibility for providing poor relief was given to the Church.
§ The Reformation had destroyed most institutions which had offered poor relief.
§ This meant that alternative forms of poor relief were necessary.
§ Acts had been passed in 1552 and 1555 by Parliament, and the Elizabethan regime continued this.
§ A further Act was passed in 1563, but it was ineffective.
§ It was not until the 1570s that parliamentary legislation started to become effectively
Stabilising the currency:
§ Northumberland and Mary had both sought to re-
stabilise the currency- Elizabeth that was able to do so.
§ Early in the reign, scheme was announced, for
withdrawal of debased coins - replacement by firmly
minted coins.
§ Some individuals did suffer from this scheme, but it did
ensure that only sound coins were circulated.
§ Gov did not resort to the debasement of coins for the
rest of century.
§ Prices continued to rise, but the government could no
longer be held responsible for the problem.
§ Had only limited effect in s/t, households tended to
hoard good coinage - pay debts with old, debased
coinage
,Elizabethan Government (1563-1603)
The Royal Court
§ The royal court was important to the Elizabethan decision-making process.
§ Here, Elizabeth could seek advice on an individual basis.
§ It existed wherever the Queen happened to be at a particular time and had two main areas – the Presence
Chamber and the Privy Chamber.
§ The Presence Chamber was a relatively open area, which anyone with the right status or connections could
access.
§ The Privy Chamber was more private and more important, although it was considerably less influential than
during the reigns of the Tudor Kings.
§ This is because the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber no longer had the rights of access to the monarch, which they
had formerly enjoyed.
§ The operation of the court came under the judiciary of the Lord Chamberlain.
§ Elizabeth always appointed a member of the nobility to this post.
Elizabeth wanted to be an active ruler and deliberately chose a much smaller privy council than that of Marys reign.
This was intended to reduce opportunities for faction-fighting and improve efficiency. Around 10 members attended
its regular meetings. Some of Marys councillors were chosen to continue in service, but Elizabeth also adder her own
choices and its principle foundations were:
§ To discuss and advise on state matters, helping to formulate policies
§ Manage crown finances Despite some disagreements over
§ Manage parliament foreign policy and execution of Mary,
§ Oversee regional councils and local officials QOS, for most of reign – worked well
§ Oversee national defence together
§ Enforce the 1559 religious settlement
§ To act as a court of law
The System of Patronage
§ Elizabeth- strong appreciation for the need to gain and retain the loyalty of politically important members of
Tudor society- achieved through patronage, which was central to the operation of the court.
§ Elizabeth bestowed these favours carefully- wide circle, - goodwill was maintained.
§ Elizabeth’s aim was - ensure many nobles and gentry were bound through patronage in loyalty to the Crown.
§ There would be relatively few who would lend support to plots against her.
§ This proved to be important, especially during the 1595 Rebellion of the Northern Earls.
§ This reflected the advice that she was given by Cecil, her chief secretary.
§ The most valuable patronage was the grant of office, varying from high positions in society to low positions
such as household servants. Those who acquired office often found that their office gave them the right to make
appointments.
§ This secondary patronage meant that more people were tied to, albeit indirectly, to the Crown.
§ Another form of patronage was the grant of pensions of favourable grants of land.
§ Favours involving land were usually bestowed by leasing land at low rent, as Elizabeth wanted to keep as much
land as possible, as she had learnt from the mistakes of her father.
§ Monopolies were also given out, which gave the recipient the sole right to manufacture or sell a particular item.
However, these were unpopular as the prevented competition. Robert Devereaux- sweet wines.
§ Elizabeth also recognised that patronage was most valued when not given too freely, and there were fewer
nobles in 1603 than there had been in 1558. Elizabeth had only granted 18 peerages during her reign.
,Mary was first undisputed Queen of England - parliament had to pass a law saying she had same authority as a king
- so Elizabeth was still a relative novelty to the 16th C world of men.
§ William Cecil - her most trusted advisor - had berated a messenger of the Spanish Ambassador for talking directly
to the Queen instead of going to him first - “a matter of such weight is too much for a woman’s knowledge”
§ Most men did not want Elizabeth to rule on her own - the Privy Council was adamant she should marry and let her
new husband run the country, but each time a proposal was put forward Elizabeth considered it for a while, but
always rejected it in the end. The “Virgin Queen” remained
Elizabeth and Cecil- chief minister- important
§ This relationship the most crucial of Elizabeth’s reign.
§ Despite her wicked temper and occasional verbal abuse of her ministers she stayed loyal to most of them during her
reign - particularly Cecil.
§ Cecil had a range of responsibilities under Elizabeth
¨ 1558 - 1572 - he was Secretary of State (leader of Privy Council)
¨ 1572 - 1598 - Lord Treasurer
¨ Master of the Court of Wards 1561 – 1598
1. Cecil had wide-ranging duties - therefore he commanded a great deal of influence.
2. He and Elizabeth shared conservative and cautious traits as politicians. Some say it was this conservatism by that
ultimately left in financial dire straits.
3. But their relationship had boundaries
4. Elizabeth would not tolerate ANYONE including Cecil, pushing her on matters of prerogative (marriage, succession
etc.)
5. Cecil believed that he was answerable to God first, then Queen. That meant if he disagreed with her, he would voice
his opinion - as not to do so was tantamount to offending God.
6. That also meant that he would be loyal and obedient to Elizabeth, as she was God’s representative on Earth.
, The role of ministers and factional rivalry:
No single minister had complete control over patronage, which helped prevent rivalries.
§ The various influential families were able to balance each other out.
§ Although varying on views, Elizabeth’s councillors would cooperate with one another.
§ The coherence of government did, however, begin to decline in the 1590s.
§ This was due to clashed between Robert Cecil and the Earl of Essex.
§ Essex’s response to his declining influence was to plan an armed coup, which would bring down Cecil and his
other enemies. This coup failed and Essex was forced to surrender.
§ However, by this time, the rule of Elizabeth and Cecil had become unpopular, and the attitudes of Essex and his
associates reflected a larger discontent.
§ Elizabeth’s chief adviser was William Cecil. Cecil served under Edward VI; twice became principal secretary and
was Lord High Treasurer from 1572. Other members: sir Nicholas baron, Francis Russell, Sir Francis knollys
§ Despite good intentions, council experienced some factional rivalries. Ear of Leicester and Cecil disagreed over
queens potential marriage and were frequent rivals in political matters.
§ These factions largely balanced one another out, disagreements were matched by issue of agreement
§ In the 1570s – influence of traditional conservatives was reduced- perceived disloyalty in 1560s.
§ For the most part Elizabethan ministers of all persuasions worked together to give coherence to government. Not
until 1950s that faction fighting became problematic as Robert Cecil clashed with earl of Essex
Parliament
Law Making
§ Altogether, 438 Acts were passed by Elizabeth's parliaments.
§ Some of these related to religion (e.g. the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity in 1559, and the penal laws
against Catholics).
§ Others were related to social policy (e.g. the Poor Laws of 1598 and 1601).
Granting Taxation
§ As with other Tudor monarchs, the most important function of Parliament was to grant extraordinary revenue to
the Crown.
§ Of the thirteen parliaments during Elizabeth’s reign, all but two were asked to grant revenue.
§ Elizabeth was often forced to ask for extraordinary revenue for the Crown’s ordinary expenses, as the level of her
ordinary revenue had fallen in real terms.
§ However, persistent failure to reform the system of direct taxation meant that the yield of extraordinary revenue
also declined in real terms.
Giving Advice
§ Most of the time, Elizabeth was not interested in listening to the advice of MPs.
§ She became irritated when MPs ventured into areas that she considered her royal prerogative. However,
meetings with Parliament did allow members of the Privy Council to access the opinions of the ‘political nation.’
§ Therefore, it did serve as a useful means of communication, and a clear point of contact between councillors and
those who administers localities on their behalf.
