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Begrippenlijst Development, Learning and Behaviour
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Samenvatting ontwikkelings- en onderwijspsychologie
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Samenvatting + Begrippenlijst Development, Learning & Behavior
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Ontwikkelings-en onderwijspsychologie boekHfst 2 (40-63) en 11 (389-401)
Epigenesis the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of
development.
Gametes; reproductive cells – egg and sperm – that contain only half the genetic
material of all the other cells in the body.
Gametes are produced by meiosis; a form of cell division in which the eggs and
sperm receive only one member from each of the 23 chromosome pairs contained in
all other cells of the body.
4 major developmental processes;
1. Mitosis (cell division)
The zygote divides into two equal parts, each containing a full complement of
genetic material. These two cells then divide into 4,8,16 and so on.
2. Cell migration
The movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin.
3. Cell differentiation
Initially, all of the embryo’s cells (embryonic stem cells) can give rise to any of the
more than 200 possible cell types in the human body. After several cell divisions,
these cells start to specialize.
4. Apoptosis
The formation of fingers depends on the death of the cells in between the ridges
in the hand plate.
When the zygote becomes implanted on the uterine wall, it becomes an embryo.
From that point, it is dependent on the mother to obtain nourishment and oxygen
and to get rid of waste product through the placenta.
Identical monozygotic twins; twins that result from the splitting in half of the
zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set
of genes.
Fraternal dizygotic twins; twins that result when two eggs happen to be
released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different
sperm; fraternal twins have only half their genes in common.
The inner cell mass that becomes the embryo is initially a single layer thick, but
during the 2nd week, it folds itself into three layers;
- Top layer nervous system, teeth, nails, inner ear
- Middle layer muscles, bones, internal organs and circulatory system.
- Bottom layer lungs, digestive system, glands, urinary tract.
A few days after the embryo has differentiated into these three layers, a U-shaped
groove forms down the center of the top layer. The folds at the top of the groove
move together and fuse neural tube (brain and spinal cord).
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,The elaborate support system that develops along with the embryo is essential to the
embryo’s survival;
- Amniotic sac a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and
protects the fetus.
- Placenta keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate,
but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials
between them (oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus, and carbon dioxide
and waste from fetus to mother).
Cephalocaudal development= the pattern of growth in which areas near the head
develop earlier than areas farther from the head.
Movement
From 5 to 6 weeks the fetus moves spontaneously
- Week 7 hiccups, burping reflex to remove air from stomach and make more
room for milk
- Week 10 fetus promotes its respiratory readiness by exercising its lungs
through ‘fetal breathing’, moving its chest wall in and out.
Touch
The fetus experiences tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity
- Sucking their thumbs in the womb
- By full term, fetal heart rate responds to maternal movements, suggesting that
their vestibular systems is also functioning before birth.
Sight
Fetuses can process visual information by the third trimester of pregnancy.
- Infants’ predisposition to look toward face-like stimuli may not require
postnatal experience.
Taste
The amniotic fluid contains a variety of flavors, and fetuses like some better than
others.
- Flavor preferences exist before birth (sweet)
Smell
Amniotic fluids take on odors from what the mother has eaten
- Phylogenetic continuity the idea that because of our common evolutionary
history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors and developmental
processes with non-human animals, especially mammals.
Habituation = a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to
repeated or continued stimulation.
Dishabituation = the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following
habituation to a repeated stimulus.
- Fetuses learn from their extensive experience with their mother’s voice
- Fetuses also learn from the tastes and smells they encounter in the womb
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,Most miscarriages occur before the woman even knows that she is pregnant. The
majority of embryos that are miscarried very early have severe defects, such as a
missing chromosome or an extra one.
Teratogen; an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal
development.
The effects of potential teratogens are heavily influenced by timing.
Many teratogens cause damage only If they are present during a sensitive
period, the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to
the effects of external factors.
Thalidomide morning sickness drug that caused major deformities in their babies.
Dose-response relation; a relation in which the effect to exposure to an element
increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a
potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be)
- Antidepressants these medications can be hugely beneficial for individuals
experiencing depression. Treatment for depression during pregnancy can help
reduce the risk of postpartum depression, which affects 10 to 30% of new
mothers. It’s not clear if the drugs are harmful for the baby.
- Opioids because they are designed to mimic the effects of
neurotransmitters, they have the potential to wreak havoc on the developing
brain. Opioids can be highly damaging to fetuses, who can become addicted
themselves. Effects of NAS (drug withdrawal); low weight, problems breathing
and feeding and seizures.
- Marijuana prenatal exposure to marijuana is associated with a range of
problem involving attention, impulsivity, learning and memory in older children.
- Smoking fetus gets less oxygen. Slowed fetal growth, low birth weight,
increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome. The effects of smoking are
greatest early during pregnancy.
- Alcohol brain injury. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).
FASD: the harmful effects of maternal alcohol consumption on a developing fetus.
FAS involves a range of effects, including facial deformities, intellectual disabilities,
attention problems, hyperactivity and other defects. Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is a
term used for individuals who show some, but not all, of the standard effects of FAS.
Environmental pollution can have an effect on pregnancy in terms of pregnancy
risk, there is a dose-response relationship; higher lead levels in the mother increase
the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth and low birth rate.
Maternal factors;
- Age infants born to girls 15 years of younger are 3 to 4 times more likely to
die before their 1st birthday. The increasing age at which many women
become pregnant is also cause for concern. Children born to older mothers
and/or fathers are at heightened risk for developmental disorders such as
autism spectrum disorder.
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, - Nutrition if a pregnant woman has in inadequate diet, her unborn child may
also be nutritionally deprived. Women who get too little folic acid are at high
risk for having an infant with neural-tube defect such as spina bifida.
- Diseases
Herpes can damage the fetus’s central nervous system and cause a variety of
other serious defects, including hearing loss.
Zika baby’s head is much smaller than expected (microcephaly)
An altered hormonal environment for the fetus may lead to long-term changes in
how children and adults cope with stress via disrupted HPA axis functioning.
Emotional deprivation and a lack of meaningful relationships with caregivers in the
first years of life hinder optimal social and cognitive development.
Harlow demonstrated through studies with monkeys that infants need and prefer a
‘cloth mother’ over a wire one that provides food, and they use the cloth mothers as a
secure base for exploration
Proponents of behaviorism food, such as breast milk, is the basis for the bond
Attachment theory theory based on John Bowlby’s work that posits that children
are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of
increasing the chances of their own survival.
secure base; refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides
an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to
explore the environment.
Purpose attachment;
- Enhances the infant’s chance of survival by keeping the caregiver in close
proximity
- Helps the child feel emotionally secure, which allows the kid to explore the
world.
- Serves as co-regulation that helps children manage their levels of arousal and
their emotions
the attachment process is viewed as having an innate basis, but the development
and quality of infants’ attachments are highly dependent on the nature of their
experiences with caregivers.
Through the process of attachment, the child develops an internal working model
of attachment; the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s),
and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with
caregivers. The working model guides children’s interactions with caregivers and
other people in infancy and at older ages
Two key factors provide insight into the quality of the infant’s attachment to the
caregiver (Ainsworth);
1. The extent to which an infant is able to use the primary caregiver as a secure
base
2. How the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with the
caregiver.
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