PSYC 302: FINAL EXAM PREP
(ANSWERED) 317 QUESTIONS AND
CORRECYT ANSWERS, 100%
CORRECT. UPDATED FALL 2024/2025.
goal directed action
the idea that human behaviour is presumed to be purposeful and intentional
when do infants understand actions to be goal oriented?
4-5 months (but not with non human agents)
how do you test if infants understand goal oriented actions?
- show babies a consistent action
- violation of expectation with habituation
- habituate to arm or person performing same action (ex: grabbing ball from right side, and not
choosing the bear)
- test: see a new goal or new path event where objects are reversed in space
- new goal: hand is reaching for object in the same place but it's a different object
- new path: hand is reaching for same object but it's in a different place
- new goal should be weirder and by 4.5 months, they look longer at the new goal event rather than
the new path event
why can we assume that infants understand that goal directed actions are for humans?
when testing for goal oriented action, there's no difference between the tests when using a
mechanical arm
what is a proposal to why we learn about goal oriented action?
it seems to be related to own goal directed experience
how can we test goal oriented action and the effect of experience?
- look at 3 month olds (no control over reaching, not a lot of goal directed action)
- gave one set of babies velcro mittens and gave them toys that had velcro
- babies with mittens were able to grasp things; let them experience goal oriented action
- results: at 3 months, they don't understand that action is goal directed; but those who had
experience with the mittens, they seem to understand the actions as goal directed (looks longer at
the new goal event)
when can children understand collaborative action to be goal directed as well?
14 months
how do we test if children understand collaborative action to be goal directed?
,- babies will see either a collaborative (two girls with a box and a duck, one opens the box, the other
gets the duck) or a non-collaborative (two people, duck already outside, only one person
doing things)
- results: in collaborative condition, they looked more at the duck than the box reaching because
they knew the duck was the goal, why get the box
even though they were habituated to the experimenter grabbing the box
what do researchers want to know when studying an infant's perception of social groups?
- is it innate
- are there preferences
- what do the preferences mean
- what is the development of the preference
ingroup
- "us"
- those in a group that are similar to you in some characteristics
outgroup
- everyone who isn't in the ingroup
- those who are different from you
ingroup or outgroup preference
- both adults and children typically prefer their ingroup
- tend to more easily dislike people who are not like them
- argued that this is the roots of racism, sexism
- that's why it's something researchers are looking into if this is something
innate
babies and their preference of males or females
- early studies showed that babies looked at females more than males
- preference for females early on was not necessarily there depending on the environment
- when infants have a primary caregiver that is a female they prefer female faces
- for those with male primary caregivers have a slight preference for males
at what age do infants prefer race ingroups?
- at 3 months, infants prefer to look at familiar race faces vs unfamilair race faces
how was race ingroup preference tested in infants?
- they were shown faces of different races
- they tested caucasian babies
- looked at how long they would look at one race
is race preference in infants influence by experience?
- at birth there's no preference for same ace faces
- preference is present at 3 months
describe the results of the study that found 3 month olds to have race preference
,- tested 3 groups of 3 month infants
- Israeli infants from Caucasian families (predominant race) showed preference for Caucasian faces
- Israeli infants from African families (minority race) showed no preference
-Ethiopian infants from African families (predominant race) showed preference for black faces
what do the results of the race preference study tell us?
that infants of the predominant race group prefer own race faces, while infants of the minority race
group show no consistent preference
what is the other race effect
it's when there is more difficulty recognizing faces of unfamiliar ethnicity than from own ethnicity
how was the other race effect tested?
- looked in a habituation type design
- tested caucasian babies on ability to tell apart people of different ethnicities
- habituate babies to a face
- to test, show two faces, one is the one they were habituated to
- then seeing if babies could tell them apart
results of other race effect study
- at 3 months, infants look more to the new face for all ethnicities
- at 6 months, they are above chance but not as good at it
- at 9 months, the only set of face they could tell apart were those in their on ethnicity
what do the results of the other race effect study tell us?
that perceptual narrowing occurs
how is language ingroup preference tested? (type 1 - preference)
preference study
- show two individuals
- one speaks native and other speaks non native
- shown side by side
- see which infant prefer to look at
how is language ingroup preference tested? (type 2 - toy)
- looks at who infants will choose to take toys from
- shown one speaking native, other speaking non native
- for test: both are offering identical toys
how is language ingroup preference tested? (type 3 - friendship)
- see two different kids, one speaking native,
one speaking non native
- asked who would you like to have as your friend
do infants show a preference for their language ingroup? (for type 1)
in 5-6 month old babies
- babies prefer to look at native speakers
, - also did it with accent, just someone speaking native language with accent, and at 5-6 months, they
prefer native accent
do infants show a preference for their language ingroup? (for type 2)
10 month olds
- both sets of babies chose to take toys
from those who spoke the same language
as them
do infants show a preference for their language ingroup? (for type 3)
really strong preference for the person who spoke their native language or accent
what are 3 hypotheses for what early preferences for ingroups means?
1) infants understand social group memberships - they understand that those of the same race or
language are in the same group as them
2) infants prefer individuals like them, dislike individuals not like them
3) infants just like familiar people
who passes theory of mind tests? who fails?
- those younger than 3 years old fail
- those older than 4 pass
what are mental states?
what people are thinking, their goals, intentions desires and beliefs
why is it difficult to study theory of mind?
- other people's mental states can be different from our own
- sometimes other people's mental states are different from reality
what are some early signs that show infants have reasoning about mental states?
1) interest in people
2) gaze following
3) 5-6 months: goal directed action
4) 18 months: infer other's intentions and desires
why are traditional false belief tasks hard for infants?
- they have to do a lot of things, they have to:
1) follow the story
2) figure out what the correct answer is
3) inhibit their own knowledge
how do you test how 18 months infer other's desires?
goldfish broccoli test
- asked if they preferred goldfish and broccoli
- shows adult tasting one or the other and giving a positive or negative reaction
- ask child for one to see which one child would give
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