In-depth and colour-coded notes covering the entire Chinese Revolution as taught by the VCE Revolutions course. Written by a 47 raw study score and 99+ ATAR achiever.
2.1 The 1911 • Background – Qing Dynasty
Revolution By 1911, the autocratic rule of the Qing dynasty was outdated and alienated the
people. The Qing dynasty was reluctant to accept foreign ideas or industrialise like
the West. They suffered repeated defeats by more powerful powers in the 19th
Century, and so gradually declined in power, authority and prestige. This
technological inferiority is demonstrated by the way that Western Powers were able to
invade China and swiftly defeat the Qing Army in 1900 during the Boxer Uprising. This
finally convinced the government to undertake rapid reform.
The Qing Government authorised the creation of 18 provincial armies named “New
Armies” instead of one national army to strengthen China’s fighting force in the New
Armies Law (1901). However, these armies held little loyalty to the Manchu
Government, headed by Provincial Hans.
The New Learning Law (1903) mandated for schools to provide an internationally-
focussed curriculum, including Westerns ways of thinking that differed from the
traditional Confucian ideals. This allowed for the proliferation of Western sentiment
and thus, widespread disillusionment with the system of governance. Dr Sun Yat-
Sen was able to harness this to spark national uprisings that resulted in the toppling of
the Qing regime.
This unrest came mostly in the form of Chinese Nationalism. Han Chinese resented
that China was ruled by Manchus and partially colonised by Western Imperialists,
who used the Chinese populace for a profit. This is most damningly shown by the trade
of opium in China by foreign powers, which led to there being 25 million opium addicts
in China at the turn of the twentieth century (John King Fairbank claims). They rejected
the right of the monarchy to rule and demanded the regeneration of China.
Zou Rong: “Internally we are slaves of the Manchus…externally we are being
harassed by foreign powers: we are doubly enslaved”
• Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen)
Was exposed to many Western influences, which showed him how China should be
developed. Became increasingly frustrated by China’s backwardness. To resist the
Qing Dynasty, created secret societies and disseminated anti-Qing propaganda
throughout the early 1900s. He was instrumental in catalysing revolution in 1911.
In 1905, Dr Sun founded the ‘revolutionary alliance’ (Tongmenghui), which was to
become the most active revolutionary group in China between 1905 and 1911. It
would have over 10 000 members and launch 10 attempted revolutions. He wrote
the ‘Manifesto of Revolutionary Alliance’ as the guiding document for the Revolutionary
, Alliance, which outlined his goals for China in terms of his Three Principles of the
People. There were:
• Nationalism: all people have the right to their own nation. China must be ruled
by Han Chinese, not Manchus or Westerners. This was reflected in Dr Sun’s
slogan “China is the China of the Chinese”.
• Democracy: the government must reflect the interests of the people.
• People’s Livelihoods: it is the responsibility of the government to improve
people’s lives. China must be modernised to improve people’s lives and
welfares.
• 1911 Revolution
In October 1911, soldiers with connections to the Tongmenghui in Wuhan staged a
mutiny after being found with stashes of unauthorised weapons. They had rebels seize
control of the city, and by December, 12 of China’s 18 provinces had similarly
shaken the rule of the Qing Dynasty. The entirety of Central and Southern China was
in revolt against the Qing Dynasty, led by New Army Soldiers and Tongmenghui
activists.
On the 29th of December 1911, the provisional government of the Republic of China
was declared in Nanjing. On the 1st of January 1912, Dr Sun was elected President.
Between November 1911 and February 1912, the Republic of China fought those
provinces loyal to the Qing government. General Yuan Shikai led the loyalists as the
Commander in Chief of the Qing Army to a stalemate where they controlled the
northern provinces while Sun held the southern provinces.
In an effort to deescalate the civil war, Sun offered presidency of the Republic of
China to Yuan Shikai if he convinced the Qing to abdicate. In February 1912, Yuan
followed through on those terms, and the Republic of China was officially formed in
March 1912 with Yuan as President.
“The true face of the 1911 Revolution belonged to Yuan Shikai, not Sun Yat-sen” –
Peter Zarrow.
2.2 The • Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai) and his presidency of the Republic of China
Presidency of
Yuan Shikai John King Fairbank: “[Yuan’s] only hope of governing China lay in a reassertion of
autocracy…Democracy, in short, was not on Yuan’s agenda”.
Michael Lynch: “1911 was only a partial revolution”
,Once he got the presidency of China, he ruled the country as a military dictator. A
National Assembly had been created under Dr Sun as the vehicle for Peoples’
Democracy, and while Yuan still held elections for this assembly, he suppressed and
bribed officials until he became the effective dictator. Despite the Guomindang
winning a plurality of 45% in the 1913 National Assembly elections, Yuan ruled as
military dictator. He ordered the assassination of the Guomindang delegation leader
Song Jiaoren on the 20th of March 1913 and surrounded the hall of the National
Assembly with Beiyang soldiers when they attempted to cross him to cement his
dictatorial powers.
His main source of power came from his personal army – the Beiyang Army. It started
as one of the provincial armies under the Qing dynasty but grew into the largest and
best-equipped army in China. Its generals were all handpicked by Yuan and so loyal
to him. He appointed Beiyang generals as government ministers and provincial
governors to cement power.
This was demonstrated in his quick defeat of GMD forces in 1913 when they attempted
to overthrow him in a “Second Revolution”.
Second Revolution:
In 1913, Dr Sun tried a “second revolution” against Yuan. 7 provinces declared
independence from the military dictator, but Yuan’s Beiyang Army was able to quickly
supress them. The GMD was illegalised, leaders were executed or arrested, and Dr Sun
was forced to flee China.
In response to the Second Revolution, Yuan:
• On the 4th of November 1913, he banned the GMD.
• January 1914, he dissolved national and provincial parliaments and replaced them
with a purely advisory state council.
• By May 1914, Yuan had secured a new constitution that extended his term from five
to ten years.
Under his leadership, China did undergo some significant reforms:
• Crop yields increased as a result of increased irrigation and flood control.
• Primary school education was centralised and became compulsory.
• Centralised the currency and the legal system.
• Suppression of opium farming.
His greatest political defeat came on the 18th of January, 1915, wherein Japan sent 21
Demands to the Chinese government in response to the loan they had given them.
These included extensive mining rights in Manchuria, inner Mongolia, right to appoint
, Japanese advisors to the Chinese government. Fearful of war with Japan, Yuan
accepted nearly all of the demands, signifying that China would still bow to foreign
imperialism. Nationalists denounced this action by declaring a ‘day of national
shame’ on May 7th.
On the 1st of January 1916, he declared himself Emperor of the Grand Constitutional
Era. Even loyal generals were appalled by how blatantly he was emulating the dynasty
he had overthrown, and Yuan abandoned the pretence of imperial power only three
months later.
• Guomindang (GMD)
In August 1912, Song Jiaoren and Dr Sun combined the Tongmenghui with four smaller
parties to form the Guomindang.
Dr Sun once again went back to trying to bring about democracy to China. He
transformed the Tongmenghui into a legitimate and modern political party, the
Guomindang. This became the dominant party in China (269 of 596 seats in the
National Assembly, 45% plurality) through its promise of the Three Principles of the
People (nationalism, democracy, people’s livelihoods).
In 1913, Dr Sun was forced to flee from China, marking the end of his first attempt at
revolution in China.
Dr Sun: “the Republic…has been entirely destroyed by [Yuan]”
3.1 The Warlord • challenges to the early Republican era (warlordism)
Decade Yuan Shikai’s rule came to an end when he died in 1916. A power struggle broke out
between the three leading generals of the Beiyang Army, which split into three
cliques that fought for control of China’s northern provinces. In between 1917 and
1924, they fought a series of inconclusive wars for control of the Beijing
government. In the south, warlords took control of individual provinces.
"China could be seen as a continent, split into rival states...no single militarist was
strong enough to take charge of all China" - Jonathan Fenby.
In the following decade (1917-1927), warlords ruled over provinces in China. The
country lacked a central authority, which is shown by how the Beijing government had
28 Prime Ministers and 9 Presidents in ten years. This political instability was
exacerbated by foreign powers, who gave money and weapons to those warlords who
furthered their interests.
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