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Summary Introduction to Animal Sciences
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Summary covering the content of the lecture notes and theory explained during the lectures, as well as the main points of 5 case studies discussed during the course.
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INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCESLECTURE 1 - REASONS FOR KEEPING AND RAISING ANIMALS
1st domesticated animal was the dog, around 13000 BC; 1st farm animal domesticated was the goat.
Characteristics that a domesticated animal should have:
- Have a flexible diet
- Reach the reproductive age soon, and be able to reproduce in captivity
- Be not aggressive and accept humans as dominants. Indeed, animals were kept only for meat at
first; after they got used to be touched by humans, they allowed them to take their milk and eggs.
- Not panic easily
Meat
Most consumed in NL and worldwide is pork, followed by poultry and beef.
Slaughter first stunning; it can be electrical, with CO2 or mechanical (bolt). In fish it made through
suffocation, percussive stunning or spiking. Then there is bleeding.
Meat was frequently used in the past as gift; this is still done in some developing countries.
Pork meat obtained through crossing 4 pure lines. The Meishan is a new breed, that is appreciated
because it makes many piglets per litter.
Sows give birth to approx. 29.8 piglets/year, but 11.5% of them die so they give birth to approx. 26
piglets.
Beef main breeds are Aberdeen Angus and Belgian Blue. In the past, also the MRIJ was used because it is
a dual-purpose breed.
Poultry meat it is obtained mainly from broilers.
Milk
Most consumed milk in the NL and worldwide are cattle and buffalo milk, followed by goat milk.
In the past, the Dutch Friesian (FH) was the most farmed breed, but was then replaced by the Holstein
Friesian (HF) because of the higher production.
Eggs
In the NL, people eat approx. 200 eggs/year; the majority of the eggs produced here is however exported.
In 2012, battery cages were banned in the EU, while in 2018 beak trimming was banned.
Other reasons
- Blood used to produce black pudding, for religious purposes and to replace milk in the dry
period in some areas of Africa, because cows produce less.
- Energy for ploughing agricultural machines, transport and to produce manure used as
fertiliser, for combustion to produce heat, to build houses in some developing countries.
, - Clothing wool, mainly produced in Australia, China and New Zealand; leather; fur: chinchilla and
fox farms were banned in 1995 and 1997 respectively, while mink farms will be closed between
2012-2024; silk, from silkworms; feathers, especially down but people do not buy clothes with
feathers because they are expensive and are produced through live plucking
- Lab animals important three Rs: reduction = researchers should use the minimum number of
animals possible to have a result; refinement = lab animals should be given the best life possible;
replacement = using other techniques not involving animals when possible.
- Status in some countries, people who have animals are considered rich.
- Coffee elephant faeces
- Service animals
- Entertainment circus, zoos, sport, hunting, fights
- Conservation of endangered species to prevent their extinction.
- Conservation grazing use of livestock to maintain pastures and increase biodiversity.
DO CASE 1
LECTURE 2 – SUSTAINABLE ANIMAL FARMING
The origin of the concept is in forestry it is important to not exceed the regenerative capacity of a
(eco)system.
The first farming sector to which the term “sustainability” was applied is fisheries.
Fossil fuels are a big problem because they pollute a lot, and have a low regenerative capacity. They cause
emissions that influence climate change, acidification of rainfall (and consequently soil and water) and
eutrophication (excessive algae growth). The emissions are produced for 25% by the food sector. Emissions
must be reduced because we must not exceed the absorption capacity of the Earth.
Brundtland report created a definition of sustainable development = it is the development that meets
the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs.
Sustainable development has 3 dimensions: the environment; society, because a production
system should be socially accepted; main concerns in developed countries regard animal welfare, food
safety, the condition of farmers (these concerns differ depending on the country, e.g. in developing
countries child labour is an important issue); economy, because a system e.g. a farm should be profitable.
Animal Production System Group it aims at finding and creating indicators to measure the impact of a
new system on the environment, animal welfare and the farmer livelihoods.
- Impact on the environment it is measured using the Life Cycle Assessment, which measures the
use of raw material and emissions produced during the entire life cycle of a product (measures how
much raw materials was used and how many emissions there were during production of a product)
- Impact on animal welfare measured with the Welfare Quality Protocol. It contains the Five
Freedoms: freedom from hunger/thirst, freedom from discomfort, freedom from
pain/injury/diseases, freedom from fear/distress, freedom to express a natural behaviour.
However, there is the need to create new protocols that focus on the moods/emotions of animals,
because the Welfare Quality Protocol focusses on alleviating negative experiences and not
promoting the positive.
, - Impact on farmer’s livelihoods measured with the cost-benefit analysis. It measures the
profitability of the farm.
Today’s issue is outdoor grazing for cattle it is good for their welfare but not good for the environment
because of emissions and leaking of nitrates in the soil. For this reason, grazing is decreasing in the NL. The
government did the Convention on Pasturing the aim is that 80% of cattle in NL can graze by 2020.
LECTURE 3 – CATTLE FARMING
History of dairy cattle farming in NL
Domestication of cows begun in 7000 BC. The ancestors of cows are aurochs. They were initially
used only form meat, then for milk production.
1900 - 1940: milk production was on small scale; there were mixed farms and not specialised in
cattle farming. In the 19th century, there started to be interest in breeds and the first studbooks
were created: Cattle Herd Book and Friesian Cattle Herd Book. The most raised breeds were the
Dutch Friesian and the MRIJ, which were both dual-purpose breeds. They produced approx. 3500
kg of milk/year.
1945 – 1984: after WW II, the government started to promote self sufficiency of the country so
that nobody would suffer from hunger again (it was reached in the 1970s). The sector started to
grow thanks to some innovations:
o Introduction of tractors and milking machines. The herringbone milking parlour was the
most popular.
o Introduction of the free-stall housing system
o Use of silage and concentrate as feed better production of milk.
o Use of fertilisers to produce feed better feed quality better milk production.
o Introduction of artificial insemination from the 1960s. It is advantageous because farmers
were sure that the semen was taken only from the best bulls, more cows could be
inseminated with the same semen and it could be conserved for a long time (freezing).
The sector was also more specialised: farmers started to raise only Holsteiner Friesians, which are
specialised in milk production (not dual-purpose like other breeds); the number of farms declined from
200000 to 50000, but the number of cows per farm raised from 7 to 41.
Between 1970 and 1984, there has been an overproduction that lead to the introduction of the milk
quota in 1984. It put a limit on milk production for farmers; if this limit was exceeded, farmers had to
pay.
1984 – 2015: farmers focused on reducing costs because of the milk quota. The production of each
cow raised from 5000 kg/year to 9000 kg/year, and the number of cows per farm was approx. 89.
However, the total number of raised cows in the NL started to decrease because each cow
produced more and this was a problem due to the milk quota (they produced too much they should
have paid for the excess produced, so they started keeping less cows).
From 2015-now: in 2015, the milk quota was abolished because it interfered with the global
market and the development of farms. As a result, the number of cows increased because there
was no limit on production but another problem arose. The government had put a limit on the
production of phosphate of 172.9 million kg, but it was exceeded because of the higher number of
cows. As a consequence, the Phosphate Reduction Plan was introduced the number of cows
, that each farmer could keep had to be the same as that of July 2 nd in 2015. Farmers that decided to
stop farming also received a premium, and the phosphate content in feed had to be reduced.
Numbers
Dairy cattle 70%
Veal calves 22% 4.1 million cows in 2017 in the NL
Beef cattle 8%
Dairy cattle
Friesland is the province with the highest number of cows in the NL. Over Ijssel and Gelderland are
two other provinces with many dairy cows.
The number of days in a lactation has increased from 306 to 352.
In 1995, the average longevity of a cow was 5 years and 9 months. In 2017 the average longevity
was 19 days shorter and the average milk production 25% higher.
Beef cattle
In 1990, 2.25 million cows were slaughtered, and this number declined over the years. Hence, the
consumption of beef had declined.
Veal calves
In 2012, 575000 calves were used as replacement, 95000 were raised to produce beef and 909000 were
slaughtered to produce veal meat.
The veal sector relies on the import of calves from Germany, Belgium and Poland; also, the 90% of veal
meat produced is exported (mainly in Italy).
The veal farming sector grew after the WW II, because there was a surplus of male calves that were not
needed as replacement, so they were sent to veal farms. There was also a surplus in the production of
whey and skimmed milk powder, that could be used to feed calves. They were also fed with artificial milk
and housed in crates, which were then banned. Now, calves are housed in groups from 8 weeks of age and
are fed with milk replacer + solid feed.
Description of the sector
Capital for innovation Milk
Feed Farm Calves
Sperm/embryos Cows
Services for farm management
- Capital: borrowed from banks for investments.
- Feed: consists of roughage (often produced by the farmer), concentrate, by-products from the food
sector and vitamins/minerals as supplement.
, - Semen/embryos: for artificial insemination. There is no need for the farmer to keep bulls, and it is
an advantage because they are not easy to keep, and they are sure to breed their cows only with
the best bulls.
- Milk Production Record: it is a service required for good management. It consists in recording the
daily production of milk and taking samples to make analysis on the fat/protein/lactose content of
milk, and on the cell count (important for udder health).
- Milk: sold.
- Calves: sold to veal farms if they are not needed in the farm for replacement.
- (old) cows: when they are not productive anymore, they are slaughtered and used to produce meat
products (not meat because they have low quality). They cannot be used for consumption if they
had medications, and infectious disease or if they died on the farm. If they died in the farm, a
rendering company will take them and e.g. burned to produce biofuel.
Organizations
- Stakeholder organizations LTO
- Dutch Dairy Organization NZO
- Governing authorities (EU, ministry etc.) make regulations
- VWA is the Food Safety Authority, which makes inspections to ensure welfare/health of animals
and human health.
LECTURE 4 – PET SECTOR
Cats and dogs belong to the order Carnivora, among other animals. It includes 270 species that can differ a
lot in behaviour, communication, morphology, nutrition. Not all species of the order Carnivora are real
meat eaters, e.g. pandas are not carnivores.
Dogs
Domesticated in the 13000 BC; they descend from the Grey Wolf. In the past, wolves started to get used to
the presence of humans, e.g. they ate the remainings of human prays after hunting, so they became
“proto-dogs”. They were semi-solitary waste-eaters, that started to live with humans and were used for
hunting and guarding.
There were 4 old ancestral lines of dogs, from which current breeds descend: Asian dogs, Herding dogs,
Hunting dogs and Mastiff dogs.
NB: Basenji, Dingo, New Guinea singing dog, Village dogs, small and large breeds all derive from the Dump
dog (proto-dog?).
In 1800, people started to be interested in breeding. Dogs were bred for different purposes: guarding,
herding, hunting, pulling carts, war (mastiffs), companionship. Nowadays, dogs are bred for different
purposes: police dogs, assistance in disasters, service dogs, herding, companionship. There are currently
344 recognised breeds.
,Cats
They descend from the wild cat, in particular the African wild cat (not Asian or European). They were
domesticated around 8000 BC, but they are still the least domesticated animal because humans did not
decide to keep cats; conversely, cats started to get closer to human settlings because they hunted mice and
rats in their grain stocks, so people started to appreciate their presence.
Cats are bred for external characteristics, not for their function (like dogs). There are now 41-49 recognised
breeds.
NB: The Ragdoll is a purebred cat.
Numbers
Dogs in the NL, there are 1.6 million dogs; this number is constant. 1/3 of these dogs have a pedigree.
There are also 167 professional dog breeders. In the world, there are about 900 million dogs (both
household and stray).
Cats in the NL, there are 2.6 million cats; the number is slightly decreasing. Only 1.8% of these cats have
a pedigree. There are 63 professional cat breeders. In the world, there are 600 million cats in total.
Purebred animal = of a modern breed, with a documented pedigree and registered in a studbook.
Benefits of having pets
- Physical health lower blood pressure, lower chance of having heart diseases, 28% of people with
a pet survived a heart attack, better immune system if you have a dog.
- Mental health less stress, less depression after losing someone, longer life, more self-esteem.
Description of the sector
Costs they include costs for food, vet, toys, various items. The major cost is the feed. If you own a dog in
the NL, you also have to pay a tax. If you have a cat, you have also costs for the litter.
Pet food there are 200 pet food plants in EU. The European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF) sets
the guidelines for production of pet feed. In the NL, there are also 1600 pet shops and hundreds of
supermarkets that also sell pet food.
Breeders the main issue breeders have attention for, is the prevention of hereditary diseases. Medical
care and proper feeding are also important for a breeder. The Dutch Kennel Club keeps the studbooks of
dog breeds in the NL.
Health there are 4400 vets in the NL; 45% of them are specialised in pets, 42% have a mixed practice.
There are also 90 animal ambulances, owned by the Animal Protection Agency.
Associations 9% of dog owners and 2% of cat owners are members of a pet association. The Dutch
Kennel Club is for dogs; Consultation Platform of the Dutch Cat Fancy is for cats.
Policy the Council for Animal Affairs works with the Ministries on issues about animal welfare and
health.
, Animal protection the Animal Protection Agency is the largest organisation that defends animals in the
NL. There is also the Dutch Society for the Protection of Animals. The International Fund for Animal Welfare
is an association based in Canada that helps animals in need all over the world.
Shelters 150 in the NL.
Service dogs there are 5 schools for guide dogs in the NL, e.g. the Royal Dutch Guide Dogs. The Stichting
Hulphond trains dogs for people with physical or auditory disabilities.
LECTURE 5 – PIG FARMING
About 941 million pigs are farmed worldwide; the biggest producer is China. The biggest producers in
Europe are Germany, Denmark and Poland.
In the NL, 12 million pigs are farmed (especially in Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg). This number is stable
since 2000. A big part of these pigs is exported to Germany, Belgium and Italy.
History
Until 1900s small scale farming; farmers kept a few pigs to eat waste.
1960-1990 the number of pigs increased from 3 million to 14.4 million. The sector grew because:
- It developed in sandy soils, which were not suitable for crop production of dairy farming, so there
was a lot of land available to farm pigs.
- Pig farming was independent from the soil, because most feed was imported so farmers did not
need land to grow crops.
This growth lead to environmental problems a lot of manure was produced, but there was a limited
amount of arable land were manure could be disposed.
1996 outbreak of classical swine fever. Many pigs had to be culled because there was a non-vaccination
policy for that disease in the EU, so pigs could not be vaccinated. They were also culled to avoid that the
disease spread.
1997 introduction of the “pig production rights”, that limit the growth of pig farms to reduce pollution
and because of culling due to the swine fever. These rights established that the number of pigs in each farm
had to be the same as that in 1995-1996, and that the total number of pigs must be 12.2 million (stable
number since 2000). These rights can be transferred from farmer to farmer, so the farmers that decided to
quit could give their rights to others; as a result, the number of farms decreased but the number of pigs per
farm increased.
Sector
Pigs are kept to produce meat. The piglets are produced in sow farms, where they are raised until they
reach 25kg. Then, they go to a grower finisher farm (and become grower finisher pigs) and are slaughtered
at 95-130kg depending on the market’s wishes.
However, 30% of pig farms are so-called “closed cycle farms” piglets stay in the same farm until
slaughter.
In 2010, there were approx. 400 sows per (sow) farm and 1000 grower finisher pigs per (grower finisher)
farm.
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