This is a summary of the book "Biological Psychology", 12th edition, for the first year course Biopsychology and Neuropsychology at Leiden University, 2017/2018. I summarized the chapters and the parts of the chapters we had to read. It's a pretty detailed summary, so it contains everything you nee...
Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14 and appendix a
June 2, 2018
June 4, 2018
55
2017/2018
Summary
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bio
neuro
psychology
psychologie
biopsychology
neuropsychology
biopsychologie
neuropsychologie
kalat
2017
2018
leiden
book
chapters
university
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Contents
Appendix A: brief, basic chemistry...................................................................................................................4
Chapter 1: nerve cells and nerve impulses........................................................................................................4
The cells of the nervous system.....................................................................................................................4
The nerve impulse..........................................................................................................................................6
Chapter 2: synapses............................................................................................................................................9
The concept of the synapse............................................................................................................................9
Chemical events at the synapse...................................................................................................................10
Chapter 3: anatomy and research methods......................................................................................................13
Structure of the vertebrate nervous system..................................................................................................13
The cerebral cortex.......................................................................................................................................15
Research methods........................................................................................................................................16
Chapter 4: genetics, evolution, development and plasticity............................................................................18
Genetics and evolution of behavior.............................................................................................................18
Development of the brain.............................................................................................................................20
Plasticity after brain damage........................................................................................................................23
Chapter 7: movement.......................................................................................................................................25
The control of movement.............................................................................................................................25
Brain mechanisms and movement...............................................................................................................26
Movement disorders.....................................................................................................................................28
Chapter 8: wakefulness and sleep....................................................................................................................29
Rhythms of waking and sleeping.................................................................................................................29
Stages of sleep and brain mechanisms.........................................................................................................30
Why sleep? Why REM? Why dreams?.......................................................................................................32
Chapter 11: emotional behaviors.....................................................................................................................33
What is emotion?.........................................................................................................................................33
Attack and escape behaviors........................................................................................................................34
Stress and health...........................................................................................................................................36
Chapter 12: the biology of learning and memory............................................................................................37
Learning, memory and amnesia...................................................................................................................37
Storing information in the nervous system..................................................................................................41
Chapter 13: cognitive functions.......................................................................................................................43
Lateralization of function.............................................................................................................................43
Evolution and physiology of language........................................................................................................44
, 3
Conscious and unconscious processes and attention...................................................................................46
Social neuroscience......................................................................................................................................48
Chapter 14: psychological disorders................................................................................................................49
Substance abuse and addiction....................................................................................................................49
Mood disorders............................................................................................................................................50
Schizophrenia...............................................................................................................................................52
Autism spectrum disorders..........................................................................................................................54
, 4
Appendix A: brief, basic chemistry
Elements and compounds
Matter is composed of elements (materials that cannot be broken down into other materials) and
compounds (materials made up by combining elements). There are 92 elements. Compound is represented
by symbols for the elements that compose it.
Atoms and molecules
Atoms: pieces that cannot be broken down any further. Molecule: smallest possible piece of a compound,
retains the properties of the compound. Subatomic particles: proton (positive charge), neutron (neutral
charge) and electron (negative charge). Nucleus: one or more protons and number of neutrons. Same
number, so electrical charges balance out. Difference between elements is in number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom, called atomic number. Atomic weight: weight of atom relative to weight of one
proton, number of protons in atom plus average number of neutrons.
Ions and chemical bonds
Atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons, becomes positive or negative (+/-/++/--). Attraction of
positive ions for negative ions forms ionic bond, transferring electron. Covalent bond: share electrons
with each other, cannot move independently of each other.
Reactions of carbon atoms
Chemistry of carbon = organic chemistry. Form covalent bonds. Share one pair of electrons: - . Share two:
=. etc. Each carbon atom usually forms four covalent bonds, with other carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms or
other atoms. Total of 4 bonds. Ringed structures are common. Simplify: omit hydrogen atoms (all bonds
not shown are with hydrogen atoms), show only carbon-to-carbon bonds or show exception when there is
bond with something other than hydrogen. Purines and pyrimidines form the central structure of DNA and
RNA, for heredity. Proteins, fats and carbohydrates are primary fuel.
Chemical reactions in the body
Enzymes: proteins that control rate of chemical reactions. Type of catalyst: chemical that facilitates
reaction among other chemicals without being altered itself in the process.
The role of ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate): sending energy where it is needed. Adenosine bound to ribose and three
phosphate groups. Phosphates form high-energy covalent bonds. ATP can break off one or two of its three
phosphates to provide energy.
Chapter 1: nerve cells and nerve impulses
Cells of nervous system can do a lot together, but very little alone.
The cells of the nervous system
Experiences depend on activity of huge number of separate but interconnected cells.
, 5
Neurons and glia
About nervous system. Neurons: receive information and transmit it to other cells. Adult human brain
contains approx. 100 billion neurons. Late 1800s: Santiago Ramón y Cajal, found that small gap separates
tips of one neuron’s fibers from the surface of the next neuron.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a pioneer of neuroscience
Main founders of neuroscience are Charles Sherrington and Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Before late 1800s,
Camillo Golgi found way to stain some cells without affecting others, to examine the structure of a single
cell. Demonstrated that nerve cells remain separate.
The structures of an animal cell
Membrane: surface of cell, separates inside of cell from outside environment. Protein channels permit
controlled flow of water, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride and other important chemicals.
Nucleus: contains chromosomes. Mitochondrion: structure that performs metabolic activities, providing
energy that cell uses for activities. Requires fuel and oxygen. Ribosomes: sites at which cell synthesizes
new protein molecules. Proteins provide building materials for the cell and facilitate chemical reactions.
Attached to endoplasmic reticulum: transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations.
The structure of a neuron
Long branching extensions. Larger neurons have dendrites, soma (cell body), axon and presynaptic
terminals. Motor neuron: soma in spinal cord, excitation though dendrites and conducts impulses though
axon to muscle. Sensory neuron: at one end very sensitive to particular type of stimulation, to the spinal
cord. Dendrites: branching fibers that get narrower near their ends. Synaptic receptors: receive information
from other neurons. Dendritic spines: short outgrowths, increase surface area available for synapses. Cell
body/soma: contains nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria, metabolic work, covered with synapses. Axon:
thin fiber of constant diameter, conveys impulse toward other neurons, organ or muscle. Covered with
insulating material, myelin sheath, with interruptions called nodes of Ranvier. Axon has many branches,
which swell at the tip, forming presynaptic terminal. Releases chemicals that cross through junction
between neurons. Afferent axon: information into a structure (admit). Efferent axon: information away
from structure (exit). Every sensory neuron is afferent to rest of nervous system and every motor neuron is
efferent from nervous system. Neuron is efferent from one and afferent to other structure.
Interneuron/intrinsic neuron: dendrites and axon entirely contained within one structure.
Variations among neurons
Neurons vary enormously in size, shape and function. Shape determines connections and therefore
function.
Glia
Glia: perform many functions. Smaller but more numerous than neurons.
Astrocytes: wrap around presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons. Shields it
from chemicals circulating in the surround, helps synchronize the activity of the axons which
allows them to send messages in waves, guide formation and elimination of synapses, remove
waste material, control amount of blood flow to each brain area, when activity somewhere: dilate
blood vessels. Hypothesis ‘tripartite synapse’: tip of axon releases chemicals that cause
neighboring astrocyte to release own chemicals, magnifying/modifying message to next neuron.
, 6
Microglia: part of immune system. Remove waste material, viruses and fungi from the brain,
proliferate after brain damage and disease, necessary for survival of certain neurons early in life,
contribute to learning by removing weakest synapses.
Oligodendrocytes: in brain and spinal cord, build myelin sheaths, supply axon with nutrients
necessary.
Schwann cells: in periphery of the body, build myelin sheaths, supply axon with nutrients
necessary.
Radial glia: guide migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic
development.
The blood-brain barrier
Mechanism that excludes most chemicals from vertebrate brain: blood-brain barrier.
Why we need a blood-brain barrier
When immune system cells identify virus, they kill it and the cell that contains it. Cell exposes virus
through its membrane. To minimize risk of irreparable brain damage, body builds a wall along the sides of
the brain’s blood vessels. Some viruses do cross. Can have long-lasting and potentially fatal consequences.
Microglia fight virus without killing the neuron.
How the blood-brain barrier works
Depends on endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries. Joined very tightly. Barrier keeps out
useful chemicals and harmful ones. Special mechanisms to get the useful chemicals across the barrier.
Small, uncharged molecules cross freely. Molecules that dissolve in the fats of the membrane cross easily.
Active transport: protein-mediated process that expands energy to pump chemicals from blood into the
brain. Alzheimer or similar conditions: endothelial cells lining brain’s blood vessels shrink, harmful
chemicals enter the brain. Barrier also keeps out many medications.
Nourishment of vertebrate neurons
Vertebrate neurons depend almost entirely on glucose, a sugar. Metabolic pathway that uses glucose needs
oxygen. They can and sometimes use ketones and lactate. Glucose is only nutrient that crosses barrier in
large quantities. Liver makes glucose. To use it, body needs vitamin b1, thiamine.
The nerve impulse
Axon regenerates an impulse at each point. Transmit information only at moderate speeds. Brain is not set
up to register small differences in the time of arrival of messages. In vision, this is needed and brain knows
whether one stimulus began earlier/later to detect movement. Axons from more distant parts of retina
transmit impulses slightly faster than closer ones.
The resting potential of the neuron
Messages develop from disturbances of resting potential. All parts of neuron are covered by membrane
with two layers of phospholipid molecules. Embedded among those are cylindrical protein molecules
through which various chemicals can pass. Controlling flow of chemicals between inside and outside of the
cell. At rest, electrical gradient/polarization: difference in electrical charge between inside and outside.
Neuron inside membrane has slightly negative charge. Difference is resting potential. Measure by
inserting a microelectrode.
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