Complete Solutions Manual for Chemistry 13e 13th Edition by Steven S. Zumdahl, Susan A. Zumdahl, Donald J. DeCoste. ISBN-13: 0671
Full Chapter Solutions are included - Chap 1 to 22 (Complete Chapters)
1. Chemical Foundations.
2. Atoms, Molecules and Ions.
3. Stoichiometry.
4. Types of Chem...
Complete Solutions Manual for Chemistry 11th Edition by Zumdahl
All Chapters included - Ch 1 to 22
CHAPTER 1
CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS
Review Questions
1. a. Law versus theory: A law is a concise statement or equation that summarizes observed
behavior. A theory is a set of hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of some
phenomenon. A law summarizes what happens; a theory (or model) attempts to explain
why it happens.
b. Theory versus experiment: A theory is an explanation of why things behave the way they
do, while an experiment is the process of observing that behavior. Theories attempt to
explain the results of experiments and are, in turn, tested by further experiments.
c. Qualitative versus quantitative: A qualitative observation only describes a quality while a
quantitative observation attaches a number to the observation. Some qualitative
observations would be: The water was hot to the touch. Mercury was found in the drinking
water. Some quantitative observations would be: The temperature of the water was 62˚C.
The concentration of mercury in the drinking water was 1.5 ppm.
d. Hypothesis versus theory: Both are explanations of experimental observation. A theory is
a set of hypotheses that has been tested over time and found to still be valid, with (perhaps)
some modifications.
2. The fundamental steps are
(1) making observations;
(2) formulating hypotheses;
(3) performing experiments to test the hypotheses.
The key to the scientific method is performing experiments to test hypotheses. If after the test
of time the hypotheses seem to account satisfactorily for some aspect of natural behavior, then
the set of tested hypotheses turns into a theory (model). However, scientists continue to perform
experiments to refine or replace existing theories.
3. A qualitative observation expresses what makes something what it is; it does not involve a
number; e.g., the air we breathe is a mixture of gases, ice is less dense than water, rotten milk
stinks.
The SI units are mass in kilograms, length in meters, and volume in the derived units of m3.
The assumed uncertainty in a number is 1 in the last significant figure of the number.
4. Volume readings are estimated to one decimal place past the markings on the glassware. The
assumed uncertainty is ±1 in the estimated digit. For glassware a, the volume would be
1
, 2 CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS
estimated to the tenths place since the markings are to the ones place. A sample reading would
be 4.2 with an uncertainty of ±0.1. This reading has two significant figures. For glassware b,
10.52 ±0.01 would be a sample reading and the uncertainty; this reading has four significant
figures. For glassware c, 18 ±1 would be a sample reading and the uncertainty, with the reading
having two significant figures.
5. Precision: reproducibility; accuracy: the agreement of a measurement with the true value.
a. Imprecise and inaccurate data: 12.32 cm, 9.63 cm, 11.98 cm, 13.34 cm
b. Precise but inaccurate data: 8.76 cm, 8.79 cm, 8.72 cm, 8.75 cm
c. Precise and accurate data: 10.60 cm, 10.65 cm, 10.63 cm, 10.64 cm
6. Significant figures are the digits we associate with a number. They contain all the certain digits
and the first uncertain digit (the first estimated digit). What follows is one thousand indicated
to varying numbers of significant figures: 1000 or 1 × 10 3 (1 S.F.); 1.0 × 103 (2 S.F.); 1.00 ×
103 (3 S.F.); 1000. or 1.000 × 103 (4 S.F.).
7. In both sets of rules, the lease precise number determines the number of significant figures in
the final result. For multiplication/division, the number of significant figures in the result is the
same as the number of significant figures in the least precise number used in the calculation.
For addition/subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the least precise
number used in the calculation (not necessarily the number with the fewest significant figures).
To perform the calculation, the addition/subtraction significant figure rule is applied to 1.5 −
1.0. The result of this is the one significant figure answer of 0.5. Even though both numbers in
the calculation had two significant figures, they both showed uncertainty to the tenths place.
Any addition or subtraction of these numbers can at best be known to the tenths place. Next,
the multiplication/division rule is applied to 0.50/0.5. A two significant figure number divided
by a one significant figure number yields an answer with one significant figure (answer = 1).
8. The two scales have different zero points and different degree sizes. In converting from one
to the other, one must account for both differences. The Fahrenheit scale has the smallest
change in temperature per degree, while the Celsius and Kelvin scales have the largest change
in temperature per degree.
9. Consider gold with a density of 19.32 g/cm 3. The two possible ways to express this density as
a conversion factor are:
19.32 g 1 cm3
or
1 cm 3 19.32 g
Use the first conversion factor form when converting from the volume of gold in cm 3 to the
mass of gold and use the second form when converting from mass of gold to volume of gold.
When using conversion factors, concentrate on the units canceling each other.
10. Solid: a state of matter that has fixed volume and shape; a solid is rigid.
Liquid: a state of matter that has definite volume but no specific shape; it assumes the shape of
the container.
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