,PART ONE: Strategies for Reading and Writing Arguments
CHAPTER 1
Understanding Persuasion: Thinking Like a Negotiator
APPROACHING THE TOPIC
A major goal of this chapter is to help students understand the nature of argument. Bombarded
by ads and television images of shouting heads, students may perceive argument as a battle, a
verbal call to arms in which the loudest opponent wins. Argument might also be seen as forceful
overstatement or exaggeration to make a point.
Students need to understand that argumentation is not a shouting match. Rather, it is an art
requiring reason, logic, and evidence to convince others. The work that goes into crafting an
argument essay takes time, reflection, and extensive research. The ultimate goal of an argument
essay is to convince a reader to change his or her thinking about a particular issue or to take a
particular action.
Helping students appreciate the differences among debate, dialogue, and deliberation is a good
introduction to the complex nature of argumentation. Debate is the act of presenting an argument
and being challenged by someone with a different view. A student must learn to formulate a claim,
to provide reasons in support of that claim, and to anticipate opposition to his or her argument.
Dialogue refines the nature of argumentation and involves listening and sharing ideas with those
who hold different views. Unlike debate, dialogue is a way to discover what others think about a
particular issue. It is about listening. Deliberation is the process of considering and evaluating the
perspectives from all sides of an issue and reaching an informed conclusion about that issue.
Deliberation enhances one’s understanding of the common and conflicting concerns.
To test students’ awareness of how arguments pervade social exchanges, ask students to
brainstorm lists of arguments they have heard, whether in the media, at home, in the dorm, or on
the street. It might also be useful to have students (alone or in groups) look up the definitions of
words such as argument, debate, confrontation, and negotiation. Then ask them which strategy
they would likely use in a disagreement with their parents, a friend, a clerk in a store, a
policeman, the president of their school, or the president of the United States. What makes them
choose one definition of argumentation over another in order to make their point?
2
,ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
TAKING A “WAR OF WORDS” TOO LITERALLY
DEBORAH TANNEN
1. Tannen points out that, instead of exploring the many facets of an issue, the media prefer to
make everything a battle. Controversy sells and conflict is interesting. The problem is that,
by assuming a polar position and defending it to the death, we close our ears to other points
of view. It becomes a situation where everyone is talking and no one is listening. Newspapers
employ provoking and often adversarial headlines designed to stir up reader interest.
Reporters endeavor to reveal all the hidden dirt on a public figure—rarely highlighting
positive things the individual may have done. Class discussion may include a debate
regarding the political battles currently taking place in Congress, in the financial industry, or
regarding social security reform.
News media aren’t the only culprits here. Most television talk shows feature adversarial
confrontations like the one featured in Tannen’s article. In fact, most political “talk shows”
are scream fests, where pundits yell over each other like kids in a schoolyard. Or, reporters
deliberately goad their subjects and play to the audience’s presumed bias to the topic. Have
students consider the heated debates fanned by the media regarding taxes, gun control, health
care, immigration policy, and the war in Afghanistan.
2. By taking sides, we may block out any reasonable perspective that the other side may
present. In other words, we prevent consensus. Gun control could be one example. One side
says ban all guns (guns kill people), and the other says we have the constitutional right to
bear arms (people kill people). Neither side wants to listen to the other, and very little
progress has been made on the issue because no one is willing to give up any “ground.”
Students should come up with many examples of how toxic political differences make for
nearly impossible resolution on hot issues.
3. Students’ answers will vary.
4. Debate is often encouraged in many classrooms, especially in higher education. While the
objective is usually to encourage discussion, argument is often the end result. The problem is
that once arguments get really going, it is difficult to return the class to a more objective and
thoughtful level. In some cases, students may become so angered at each other that shouting
matches result. Tannen points out that this method of inquiry prevents productive discussion
and eliminates the possibility for consensus.
The “winner-take-all” approach to arguments may prevent meaningful dialogue. The
inflexibility of this approach rarely solves the problem. In a situation where somebody
“wins” and somebody “loses,” there is bound to be resentment. In your effort to get your
point across, you may forget the central issues and alternative viewpoints. Moreover, when
you are on the losing side, you may be unlikely to adopt the “winning” point of view
anyway.
3
, ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
THE CASE AGAINST TIPPING
MICHAEL LEWIS
1. Probably not. But Lewis makes a valid point that tipping has become more like a tax, rather
than representing appreciation for excellent service. Lewis wants to alert readers to this
growing trend in our society, perhaps to motivate a change in behavior.
Lewis explains why he feels uncomfortable tipping, and not tipping. On the one hand, he
feels that it is a shakedown and also a holdover from a more servant-driven era of history. He
also feels that when tipping is obligatory, it ceases to have any meaning.
2. Students’ answers will vary.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
A GENERATION OF SLACKERS? NOT SO MUCH
CATHERINE RAMPELL
1. Student answers will vary.
2. The author believes that the older generation’s criticism of the younger generation is
certainly nothing new. Such criticism is common across generations. However, two things
distinguish the criticism as unique: 1) in general, Generation Y isn’t contesting that they are
more self-centered, less patient, and more lazy. They seem to agree that the older generation
worked harder and planned better. Further, technology has contributed to this view.
However, the author also notes that Gen Y contributes more time to community service than
past generations, defying the slacker stereotype.
3. The author observes: “They [Generation Y] can access just about any resource, product or
service anywhere from a mere tap on a touch screen. And as many critics have noted, it’s
also easier to get A’s.” Moreover, they study less than their predecessors while in college,
and are more likely to get financial help from their parents. Rampell uses sources with
quantifiable data to back up her statements.
4. Students’ answers will vary. Ask students to discuss if they think there is anything behind the
belief that Generation Y is a generation of “slackers.”
5. Students’ answers will vary.
6. Students’ answers will vary.
7. Ask students to consider the reasons the author titled her article this way. Does it encourage
them to read the piece? Does it help lead the audience? Set up an argument? Explain.
4
